https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Caitlin&feedformat=atomCoastal Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T19:31:56ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=20497European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-05-04T01:14:57Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the [[Black Sea]] <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, [[carbon]] and [[nitrogen]] in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
The [[Scheldt River]] and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The [[Scheldt]] estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the [[Western Scheldt]] for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
:[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
:[[Eutrophication]]<br />
:[[Nutrient analysers]]<br />
:[[Nutrient cycling]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Pierre Regnier<br />
|AuthorName=Pierre Regnier}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Claudette Spiteri<br />
|AuthorName=Claudette Spiteri}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Human_activities_and_their_impact&diff=20494Talk:Human activities and their impact2008-05-04T00:35:04Z<p>Caitlin: New page: I added text from 'Natural variability of coastal ecosystems and human activity' as I think it fits better under 'Human activities and their impact'. This article still needs developing as...</p>
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<div>I added text from 'Natural variability of coastal ecosystems and human activity' as I think it fits better under 'Human activities and their impact'. This article still needs developing as outlined in the introduction and this text will form only part of it.</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Natural_variability_of_coastal_ecosystems_and_human_activity&diff=20493Talk:Natural variability of coastal ecosystems and human activity2008-05-04T00:33:10Z<p>Caitlin: New page: Have moved this text into 'Human activities and their impact' as I think it's a better fit. Can we delete this page? It doesn't link from anywhere. Caitlin</p>
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<div>Have moved this text into 'Human activities and their impact' as I think it's a better fit.<br />
Can we delete this page? It doesn't link from anywhere. Caitlin</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Coastal_meteorology&diff=20488Coastal meteorology2008-05-04T00:16:43Z<p>Caitlin: /* Internal links */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
This article is still incomplete, since the author is still working on it. The section 'See also' already provides some interesting links. The section 'References' provides on overview of interesting literature on this topic.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
The coastal zone often experiences a unique weather which results into a very special climate. Coastal meteorology is the study of meteorological phenomena within about 100 km inland or offshore of a coastline. Improved understanding of the processes in the meteorology of the coastal zone is based on detailed knowledge of marine and terrestrial boundary layers and air-sea-interaction but has also to consider large-scale atmospheric dynamics and circulation of the coastal ocean. In addition to the importance of coastal meteorology to coastal weather forecast the subject helps in understanding the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the coastal ocean. Furthermore, the application of the knowledge is vital for the prediction of sea state and pollutant dispersal, and it is also important for public safety, ship routing and naval operations.<br />
The phenomena in coastal meteorology are caused, or significantly affected, by sharp changes in heat, moisture, and momentum transfer and changes in elevation, often a complex orography, that occur between land and water. Thermally driven effects like the land-sea breeze and orographically induced flows are the most prominent features in coastal meteorology, but also coastal cloud systems and fog, low level jets, coastal fronts and land-falling hurricanes, whose low-level flows are often modified as to favour the formation of tornadoes, are aspects of coastal weather phenomena. Complex terrain or coastlines and marine boundary layer stratus complicate the subject of coastal meteorology.<br />
<br />
[[Image:CoastlineCalif_MQ.jpg|thumb|right|Structured coastline]]<br />
<br />
==Boundary Layer Processes, Air-Sea Interaction aspects==<br />
The Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is the lowest layer of the atmosphere which most directly is influenced (on time scales of an hour or less) by the presence of the ground. Turbulent motions dominate the flow in this region. Strong momentum, heat, water vapour, trace gas and particle transfer occurs at the air-land and air sea interface which is mainly driven by turbulent motions Garratt, 1995). The ABL is the region where life and human activities predominantly take place (Pal Arya 2001).<br />
<br />
Chapter references:<br />
<br />
Garratt, J.R., 1995: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, 334pp.<br />
Pal Arya, S., 2001: Introduction to Micrometeorology. Second Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, 415pp.<br />
<br />
==Thermally driven effects, the land-sea breeze==<br />
<br />
There is generally a large thermal contrast between the ocean and the land that drives the well-known sea-breeze circulation, which results in the confluence of air originating over the ocean with air originating over the land. The sea-breeze is associated with many processes that contribute to the recirculation and trapping of pollution, the evolution of precipitating convective storms, the creation of strong nearshore thermal, moisture and aerosol gradients, and the formation and transport of fog and low cloud in the coastal zone.<br />
<br />
Qualtitative description of a sea breeze mechanism in a calm atmosphere during a clear day:<br />
- air over land heats up and expands more rapidly than that over water<br />
- vertical pressure gradient larger in cooler air over water (hydrostatic cond.)<br />
- there is a level where pressure is higher over land than over water<br />
- pressure gradient produces slight flow from B to C<br />
- convergence near C leads higher pressure and subsidence from C to D<br />
- departure from hydrostat. equi. around D and flow from D to A (sea breeze)<br />
- divergence near B leads to decrease in pressure and flow from A to B<br />
[[Image:SeaBreezeDay.jpg|thumb|right|Simplified sea-breeze-circulation during day.]]<br />
<br />
Qualtitative description of a sea breeze mechanism in a calm atmophere during a clear night:<br />
- at night the land cools more rapidly than the sea <br />
- at upper levels pressure relatively high over sea and low over land <br />
- there is a level where pressure is higher over land than over water<br />
- pressure gradient produces slight flow from C to B<br />
- convergence near B leads to higher pressure and subsidence from B to A<br />
- departure from hydrostat. equi. around A and flow from A to D (land breeze)<br />
- divergence near D leads to decrease in pressure and flow from D to C<br />
[[Image:SeaBreezeNight.jpg|thumb|right|Simplified sea-breeze-circulation during night.]]<br />
<br />
==Mechanically induced flows==<br />
<br />
Coastally-trapped disturbances that exist for between two and six days, can have length scales of 1000 km in the alongshore direction and 100-300 km across-shore.<br />
These features generally cause significant changes in the local weather in the coastal zone, for example, replacing clear skies with clouds and fog, and causing intensification and reversals of the wind field as the system moves along the coast.<br />
<br />
==Orographic Influences==<br />
<br />
Coastal mountains form a barrier to the wind field that may affect both the downstream and upstream evolution of the flow. The problem is characterized by two free parameters, the Froude number Fr, defined by U/(Nhm) and the Rossby number Ro, defined by U/(flm), where U is the speed of the air stream, hm is the height of the barrier, f is the Coriolis parameter, lm is the half width of the barrier, N is the Brunt-Vaisala frequency and is equal to (g/q0 dq/dz)0.5, g is gravity, and q0 is the mean potential temperature (the temperature of a parcel of air moved dry adiabatically to a pressure of 1000 mb). Generally blocking of the air flow occurs when Fr is < 1, which for a typical value of N of 10-1 s-1 can occur with elevations as low as 100 m. The influence of the earth's rotation on the deceleration of the upstream flow is considered through Ro. Deceleration is insignificant when Ro < 1. In steep topography it has been shown that the deceleration zone will grow upstream to a width defined by the Rossby radius of deformation lr, which is equal to Nhm/f. Steep topography is defined by the non-dimensional slope (hm/lm)(N/f), being greater than 1. This may also be written as Ro/Fr. In the coastal region the mountains often represent a wall such that lr is typically greater than lm, where Ro > 1, and the flow is not expected to be geostrophic (i.e., the flow will not remain perpendicular to the pressure gradient). The offshore influence of mountain coasts is given by the Rossby radius of deformation, which typically varies from 10 to 100 km.<br />
When uniform onshore flow, characterized by a low Froude number, encounters a coastal barrier the steady-state response is a pressure ridge, a phenomenon referred to as damming. The topographically induced pressure fields produce along-ridge pressure gradients that can result in barrier jets. The best examples of the phenomenon are found associated with cold air damming between a coastal front and mountain ridges. A similar structure can occur when the incident flow is not uniform, such as in the vicinity of a storm.<br />
<br />
[[Image:CoastalCloudsOregon.jpg|thumb|right|Coastal stratocumulus (Photo: M. Quante.]]<br />
<br />
==Interactions with large scale meteorological systems==<br />
<br />
Many of the meteorological phenomena that are associated with the coast are a consequence of synoptic-scale forcing.Traveling disturbances as they pass over the coastline can be strongly modified and lead to new phenomena that are peculiar to the coastal region. Land-falling storms are directly modified in the coastal region where changes in the bottom boundary conditions are dramatic. <br />
Severe storms affect many coastal regions during the winter and, to a lesser extent, in summer. Regional differences exist, with oceanic extratropical cyclones affecting the coast and continental extratropical cyclones moving from the interior of the continents tothe coast. Tropical cyclones, including hurricanes, may affect almost any part of the coasts in the tropics during summer and fall. Particularly important effects are caused e.g. by cold air outbreaks along the east coast of the United States and by rapidly intensifying storms over the Gulf Stream. <br />
Hurricanes/typhoons weaken over land because of the absence of latent heating at the surface.<br />
Orographic barriers can affect the dynamics of the storm through blocking and actually enhance precipitation and winds in coastal areas. Increased friction over the land decreases the surface winds, which cause an expansion of the radius of the eye wall. This can cause an increase in the vertical wind shear, which may explain the occurrence of tornadoes in these storms.<br />
Many of the meteorological phenomena that are associated with the coast are a consequence of synoptic-scale forcing; for example, the formation of coastally-trapped Kelvin waves and low level frontogenesis caused by large gradients in surface temperature. The response time of the coastal currents are sufficiently short that changes in the shelf circulation can be driven by rapidly moving atmospheric events.<br />
The formation of intense storms along coastlines or ice edges at high latitudes have been well documented. These appear to form over water just beyond the ice edge, where the large vertical temperature gradient between the water and the air leads to strong low level baroclinicity. It has been shown that some polar lows can attain the intensity and structure commonly associated with hurricanes.<br />
<br />
==Meteorological measurements in the coastal environment==<br />
<br />
Understanding the coastal atmosphere requires a multidisciplinary approach to combine research on air motions, cloud physics, aerosol dynamics, convection, air-sea gas exchange, surface waves and fluxes, boundary layer dynamics, and large scale storm systems to investigate interactions and feedbacks between these processes. Therefore the suite of meteorological instruments and well organized measurement strategies are needed to capture the the relevant parameters of the coastal atmosphere and air-water interface.<br />
[[Image:Turb_Irvine2003_red.jpg|thumb|right|Off-shore turbulent flux measurements.]]<br />
The small space and time scales associated with the coastal zone place severe demands on measurement systems. Space-borne remote sensing systems have the potential to measure phenomena both over the coastal ocean and over the land; however, besides routine photogrammetry of clouds and infrared imagery, satellite data from rcently launched systems starts to provide the required spatial resolution.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
===Internal links===<br />
Other articles about weather and climate:<br />
* [[Sea level rise, extreme weather events and erosion]]<br />
* [[Natural variability in Coastal Ecosystems#Increased variability due to climate change|Natural variability in Coastal Ecosystems due to Climate Change]]<br />
* Definition of [[climate change]]<br />
* Articles about [[Climate change effects]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
* [http://www.wmo.ch/pages/themes/cbuilding/index_en.html World Meteorological Organization (WMO)]<br />
* [http://www.agu.org/revgeophys/rogers02/rogers02.html Overview on coastal meteorology]<br />
* [http://coast.gkss.de/staff/quante/MQ_IOW.pdf Transparency collection (pdf)]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Geernaert, G.L. (ed.), 1999: Air-Sea Exchange: Physics, Chemistry and Dynamics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 578pp. <br />
<br />
Hsu, S.A., 1988: Coastal meteorology. Academic Press Inc., San Diego, 260pp.<br />
Kraus, E.B. and J. A. Businger, 1994: Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction. Oxford University Press, 362 pp.<br />
<br />
Nuss, W.A., J.M. Bane, W.T. Thompson, T. Holt, C.E. Dorman, F.M. Ralph, R. Rotunno, J.B. Klemp, W.C. Skamarock, R.M. Samelson, A.M. Rodgerson, C. Reason, and P. Jackson, 2000: Coastally trapped wind reversals: Progress toward understanding. Bull. Amer. Meteoro. Soc., 81, 719-743.<br />
<br />
Nuss, W., 2002: Coastal Meteorology. In M. Shankar (ed.) Enzyclopedia of Atmospheric Science, Elsevier, in Press.<br />
<br />
Rogers, D.P., 1995: Coastal meteorology. U.S. National Report to IUGG 1991-1994, American Geophysical Union Rev. Geophys. Vol. 33 Suppl.<br />
<br />
Rogers, D., C. Dorman, K. Edwards, I. Brooks, S. Burk, W. Thompson, T. Holt, L. Strom, M. Tjernström, B. Grisogono, J. Bane, W. Nuss, B. Morely and A. Schanot, 1998.: Highlights of Coastal Waves 1996. Bull. Amer. Meteoro. Soc., 79, 1307-1326.<br />
<br />
Rotunno, R., J. A. Curry, C. W. Fairall, C. A. Friehe, W. A. Lyons, J. E. Overland, R. A. Pielke, D. P. Rogers, S. A. Stage, 1992: Coastal Meteorology, A review of the state of the science, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C., 99 pp.<br />
<br />
Simpson, J.E., 1994: Sea Breeze and Local Winds. Cambridge University Press.<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=14428<br />
|AuthorName=Markus Quante<br />
|AuthorFullName=Markus Quante}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Theme_9]]<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine information and knowledge management]]<br />
[[Category:Techniques and methods in coastal management]]<br />
[[Category:Atmospheric processes, air and climate]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Coastal_meteorology&diff=20487Coastal meteorology2008-05-04T00:13:44Z<p>Caitlin: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
This article is still incomplete, since the author is still working on it. The section 'See also' already provides some interesting links. The section 'References' provides on overview of interesting literature on this topic.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
The coastal zone often experiences a unique weather which results into a very special climate. Coastal meteorology is the study of meteorological phenomena within about 100 km inland or offshore of a coastline. Improved understanding of the processes in the meteorology of the coastal zone is based on detailed knowledge of marine and terrestrial boundary layers and air-sea-interaction but has also to consider large-scale atmospheric dynamics and circulation of the coastal ocean. In addition to the importance of coastal meteorology to coastal weather forecast the subject helps in understanding the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the coastal ocean. Furthermore, the application of the knowledge is vital for the prediction of sea state and pollutant dispersal, and it is also important for public safety, ship routing and naval operations.<br />
The phenomena in coastal meteorology are caused, or significantly affected, by sharp changes in heat, moisture, and momentum transfer and changes in elevation, often a complex orography, that occur between land and water. Thermally driven effects like the land-sea breeze and orographically induced flows are the most prominent features in coastal meteorology, but also coastal cloud systems and fog, low level jets, coastal fronts and land-falling hurricanes, whose low-level flows are often modified as to favour the formation of tornadoes, are aspects of coastal weather phenomena. Complex terrain or coastlines and marine boundary layer stratus complicate the subject of coastal meteorology.<br />
<br />
[[Image:CoastlineCalif_MQ.jpg|thumb|right|Structured coastline]]<br />
<br />
==Boundary Layer Processes, Air-Sea Interaction aspects==<br />
The Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is the lowest layer of the atmosphere which most directly is influenced (on time scales of an hour or less) by the presence of the ground. Turbulent motions dominate the flow in this region. Strong momentum, heat, water vapour, trace gas and particle transfer occurs at the air-land and air sea interface which is mainly driven by turbulent motions Garratt, 1995). The ABL is the region where life and human activities predominantly take place (Pal Arya 2001).<br />
<br />
Chapter references:<br />
<br />
Garratt, J.R., 1995: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, 334pp.<br />
Pal Arya, S., 2001: Introduction to Micrometeorology. Second Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, 415pp.<br />
<br />
==Thermally driven effects, the land-sea breeze==<br />
<br />
There is generally a large thermal contrast between the ocean and the land that drives the well-known sea-breeze circulation, which results in the confluence of air originating over the ocean with air originating over the land. The sea-breeze is associated with many processes that contribute to the recirculation and trapping of pollution, the evolution of precipitating convective storms, the creation of strong nearshore thermal, moisture and aerosol gradients, and the formation and transport of fog and low cloud in the coastal zone.<br />
<br />
Qualtitative description of a sea breeze mechanism in a calm atmosphere during a clear day:<br />
- air over land heats up and expands more rapidly than that over water<br />
- vertical pressure gradient larger in cooler air over water (hydrostatic cond.)<br />
- there is a level where pressure is higher over land than over water<br />
- pressure gradient produces slight flow from B to C<br />
- convergence near C leads higher pressure and subsidence from C to D<br />
- departure from hydrostat. equi. around D and flow from D to A (sea breeze)<br />
- divergence near B leads to decrease in pressure and flow from A to B<br />
[[Image:SeaBreezeDay.jpg|thumb|right|Simplified sea-breeze-circulation during day.]]<br />
<br />
Qualtitative description of a sea breeze mechanism in a calm atmophere during a clear night:<br />
- at night the land cools more rapidly than the sea <br />
- at upper levels pressure relatively high over sea and low over land <br />
- there is a level where pressure is higher over land than over water<br />
- pressure gradient produces slight flow from C to B<br />
- convergence near B leads to higher pressure and subsidence from B to A<br />
- departure from hydrostat. equi. around A and flow from A to D (land breeze)<br />
- divergence near D leads to decrease in pressure and flow from D to C<br />
[[Image:SeaBreezeNight.jpg|thumb|right|Simplified sea-breeze-circulation during night.]]<br />
<br />
==Mechanically induced flows==<br />
<br />
Coastally-trapped disturbances that exist for between two and six days, can have length scales of 1000 km in the alongshore direction and 100-300 km across-shore.<br />
These features generally cause significant changes in the local weather in the coastal zone, for example, replacing clear skies with clouds and fog, and causing intensification and reversals of the wind field as the system moves along the coast.<br />
<br />
==Orographic Influences==<br />
<br />
Coastal mountains form a barrier to the wind field that may affect both the downstream and upstream evolution of the flow. The problem is characterized by two free parameters, the Froude number Fr, defined by U/(Nhm) and the Rossby number Ro, defined by U/(flm), where U is the speed of the air stream, hm is the height of the barrier, f is the Coriolis parameter, lm is the half width of the barrier, N is the Brunt-Vaisala frequency and is equal to (g/q0 dq/dz)0.5, g is gravity, and q0 is the mean potential temperature (the temperature of a parcel of air moved dry adiabatically to a pressure of 1000 mb). Generally blocking of the air flow occurs when Fr is < 1, which for a typical value of N of 10-1 s-1 can occur with elevations as low as 100 m. The influence of the earth's rotation on the deceleration of the upstream flow is considered through Ro. Deceleration is insignificant when Ro < 1. In steep topography it has been shown that the deceleration zone will grow upstream to a width defined by the Rossby radius of deformation lr, which is equal to Nhm/f. Steep topography is defined by the non-dimensional slope (hm/lm)(N/f), being greater than 1. This may also be written as Ro/Fr. In the coastal region the mountains often represent a wall such that lr is typically greater than lm, where Ro > 1, and the flow is not expected to be geostrophic (i.e., the flow will not remain perpendicular to the pressure gradient). The offshore influence of mountain coasts is given by the Rossby radius of deformation, which typically varies from 10 to 100 km.<br />
When uniform onshore flow, characterized by a low Froude number, encounters a coastal barrier the steady-state response is a pressure ridge, a phenomenon referred to as damming. The topographically induced pressure fields produce along-ridge pressure gradients that can result in barrier jets. The best examples of the phenomenon are found associated with cold air damming between a coastal front and mountain ridges. A similar structure can occur when the incident flow is not uniform, such as in the vicinity of a storm.<br />
<br />
[[Image:CoastalCloudsOregon.jpg|thumb|right|Coastal stratocumulus (Photo: M. Quante.]]<br />
<br />
==Interactions with large scale meteorological systems==<br />
<br />
Many of the meteorological phenomena that are associated with the coast are a consequence of synoptic-scale forcing.Traveling disturbances as they pass over the coastline can be strongly modified and lead to new phenomena that are peculiar to the coastal region. Land-falling storms are directly modified in the coastal region where changes in the bottom boundary conditions are dramatic. <br />
Severe storms affect many coastal regions during the winter and, to a lesser extent, in summer. Regional differences exist, with oceanic extratropical cyclones affecting the coast and continental extratropical cyclones moving from the interior of the continents tothe coast. Tropical cyclones, including hurricanes, may affect almost any part of the coasts in the tropics during summer and fall. Particularly important effects are caused e.g. by cold air outbreaks along the east coast of the United States and by rapidly intensifying storms over the Gulf Stream. <br />
Hurricanes/typhoons weaken over land because of the absence of latent heating at the surface.<br />
Orographic barriers can affect the dynamics of the storm through blocking and actually enhance precipitation and winds in coastal areas. Increased friction over the land decreases the surface winds, which cause an expansion of the radius of the eye wall. This can cause an increase in the vertical wind shear, which may explain the occurrence of tornadoes in these storms.<br />
Many of the meteorological phenomena that are associated with the coast are a consequence of synoptic-scale forcing; for example, the formation of coastally-trapped Kelvin waves and low level frontogenesis caused by large gradients in surface temperature. The response time of the coastal currents are sufficiently short that changes in the shelf circulation can be driven by rapidly moving atmospheric events.<br />
The formation of intense storms along coastlines or ice edges at high latitudes have been well documented. These appear to form over water just beyond the ice edge, where the large vertical temperature gradient between the water and the air leads to strong low level baroclinicity. It has been shown that some polar lows can attain the intensity and structure commonly associated with hurricanes.<br />
<br />
==Meteorological measurements in the coastal environment==<br />
<br />
Understanding the coastal atmosphere requires a multidisciplinary approach to combine research on air motions, cloud physics, aerosol dynamics, convection, air-sea gas exchange, surface waves and fluxes, boundary layer dynamics, and large scale storm systems to investigate interactions and feedbacks between these processes. Therefore the suite of meteorological instruments and well organized measurement strategies are needed to capture the the relevant parameters of the coastal atmosphere and air-water interface.<br />
[[Image:Turb_Irvine2003_red.jpg|thumb|right|Off-shore turbulent flux measurements.]]<br />
The small space and time scales associated with the coastal zone place severe demands on measurement systems. Space-borne remote sensing systems have the potential to measure phenomena both over the coastal ocean and over the land; however, besides routine photogrammetry of clouds and infrared imagery, satellite data from rcently launched systems starts to provide the required spatial resolution.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
===Internal links===<br />
Other articles about weather and climate:<br />
* [[Sea level rise, extreme weather events and erosion]]<br />
* [[Natural variability in Coastal Ecosystems]]<br />
* Definition of [[climate change]]<br />
* Articles about [[Climate change effects]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
* [http://www.wmo.ch/pages/themes/cbuilding/index_en.html World Meteorological Organization (WMO)]<br />
* [http://www.agu.org/revgeophys/rogers02/rogers02.html Overview on coastal meteorology]<br />
* [http://coast.gkss.de/staff/quante/MQ_IOW.pdf Transparency collection (pdf)]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Geernaert, G.L. (ed.), 1999: Air-Sea Exchange: Physics, Chemistry and Dynamics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 578pp. <br />
<br />
Hsu, S.A., 1988: Coastal meteorology. Academic Press Inc., San Diego, 260pp.<br />
Kraus, E.B. and J. A. Businger, 1994: Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction. Oxford University Press, 362 pp.<br />
<br />
Nuss, W.A., J.M. Bane, W.T. Thompson, T. Holt, C.E. Dorman, F.M. Ralph, R. Rotunno, J.B. Klemp, W.C. Skamarock, R.M. Samelson, A.M. Rodgerson, C. Reason, and P. Jackson, 2000: Coastally trapped wind reversals: Progress toward understanding. Bull. Amer. Meteoro. Soc., 81, 719-743.<br />
<br />
Nuss, W., 2002: Coastal Meteorology. In M. Shankar (ed.) Enzyclopedia of Atmospheric Science, Elsevier, in Press.<br />
<br />
Rogers, D.P., 1995: Coastal meteorology. U.S. National Report to IUGG 1991-1994, American Geophysical Union Rev. Geophys. Vol. 33 Suppl.<br />
<br />
Rogers, D., C. Dorman, K. Edwards, I. Brooks, S. Burk, W. Thompson, T. Holt, L. Strom, M. Tjernström, B. Grisogono, J. Bane, W. Nuss, B. Morely and A. Schanot, 1998.: Highlights of Coastal Waves 1996. Bull. Amer. Meteoro. Soc., 79, 1307-1326.<br />
<br />
Rotunno, R., J. A. Curry, C. W. Fairall, C. A. Friehe, W. A. Lyons, J. E. Overland, R. A. Pielke, D. P. Rogers, S. A. Stage, 1992: Coastal Meteorology, A review of the state of the science, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C., 99 pp.<br />
<br />
Simpson, J.E., 1994: Sea Breeze and Local Winds. Cambridge University Press.<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=14428<br />
|AuthorName=Markus Quante<br />
|AuthorFullName=Markus Quante}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Theme_9]]<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine information and knowledge management]]<br />
[[Category:Techniques and methods in coastal management]]<br />
[[Category:Atmospheric processes, air and climate]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ramsar_Convention&diff=20481Ramsar Convention2008-05-04T00:00:23Z<p>Caitlin: Redirecting to Ramsar Convention for Wetlands</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Ramsar Convention for Wetlands]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ramsar_Convention_for_Wetlands&diff=20480Ramsar Convention for Wetlands2008-05-04T00:00:05Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div>{{Revision}}{{Incomplete}}<br />
Awaiting additional information from author<br />
<br />
<br />
The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 154 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1671 wetland sites, totaling 151 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. <br />
<br />
The [http://www.ramsar.org/ Ramsar Convention for Wetlands], and related Ramsar Secretariat have a keen interest in both climate change and migratory waterbird. The Ramsar Secretariat has described migratory waterbirds, and in particular shorebirds, as integrative sentinels of global change. The Secretariat is engaged in recent proposals for establishing a global network of research groups for several key shorebird species, with the aim of better integrating understanding of change and the underlying reasons. These species could form a core element of the indicator species since there is as good information any waterbird species, and as the selection is designed to cover a range of life history types, migration phenologies, and coastal and inland species.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:General website - [http://www.ramsar.org/ Ramsar Convention for Wetlands]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorFullName=Magdalena Muir<br />
|AuthorName=MagdalenaMuir}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:Natural resource management in coastal and marine zones]]<br />
[[Category:Other tidal wetlands]]<br />
[[Category:Protection of coastal and marine zones]]<br />
[[Category:International coastal organisation]]<br />
[[Category:Location of coastal and marine areas]]<br />
[[Category:Coastal habitats and ecosystems in transitional waters]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ramsar_Convention&diff=20479Ramsar Convention2008-05-03T23:59:45Z<p>Caitlin: Redirecting to Ramsar Convention on Wetlands</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Ramsar Convention on Wetlands]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Global_Forum_of_Oceans,_Coasts_and_Islands&diff=20474Global Forum of Oceans, Coasts and Islands2008-05-03T03:47:39Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div>{{Revision}}<br />
Waiting for author to confrim changes<br />
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The '''Global Forum of Oceans, Coasts and Islands''' was created at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa in September 2002. The Global Forum is intended to advance the interests of oceans,coasts, and islands including small island developing States (SIDS), which are especially dependent on the oceans. The Global Forum brings together ocean leaders from governments, intergovernmental and international organizations, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, ocean donors, and scientific institutions, to achieve the sustainable development of oceans, coasts, and islands.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Third Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts and Islands==<br />
<br />
With the Third Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts and Islands in Paris in January 2006 the issue of climate and the oceans was considered. The goal was to explore the effects climate change may have on the world’s oceans, coasts, and islands, with an emphasis on [[ocean acidification]], carbon sequestration, Arctic change, and sea level change. An Oceans and Climate panel was chaired by Robert Corell, Chair, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Panel participants included: Ambassador Gunnar Pálsson, Director, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Iceland; Halldór Thorgeirsson, Deputy Executive Secretary, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); Ambassador Enele Sopoaga, Tuvalu, Vice-Chair, AOSIS, and Permanent Representative of the Mission of Tuvalu to the UN; John Shepherd, Tyndall Centre Regional Associate Director, Southampton Oceanography Centre; Ellina Levina, Climate Change Analyst, Environment Directorate, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and Magdalena Muir, Research Associate, Arctic Institute of North America. <br />
<br />
The panel summary indicated that the most vulnerable populations and some of the key vulnerabilities are oceans, coasts, and islands. [[Sea level rise]] is a significant threat for small islands, coasts, and low-lying lands. [[Ocean acidification]] is a new and looming threat that could undermine the marine food web and preclude coral development. [[Sea level rise]] and [[acidification of the oceans|acidification]] will remain for the next few thousand years. Another emerging threat is the impact of high sea surface temperatures on the intensity of tropical cyclones and hurricanes. Other climate impacts include arctic sea ice reduction, cyclonic storms, changes in ocean circulation, and changes in [[biodiversity, conservation and fisheries|biodiversity and fisheries]]. <br />
<br />
In 2005, the Intergovernmental Panel on [[climate change|Climate Change]] presented a special report on carbon dioxide sequestration. It found that storing captured carbon dioxide in geological formations is a mature technology. Ocean storage, or the direct release into the ocean water column or onto the deep seafloor, has been researched less. This storage option is less permanent than geological storage and significant uncertainty remains on [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] impacts. Oceans have slowed the build up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by acting as a sink for carbon dioxide. Recent evidence suggests that this carbon absorption has its limits and is resulting in [[acidification of the oceans]].<br />
<br />
==Areas affected by climate change==<br />
<br />
===Circumpolar Arctic===<br />
The [[Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Scientific Report (2004)|Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Scientific Report]] documents [[climate change|climatic changes]] in the circumpolar Arctic. One of the key findings suggests that the Arctic has been warming rapidly with much larger changes projected for the future. Increasing temperatures, melting glaciers, reductions in the extent and thickness of sea ice, thawing [[permafrost]], and rising sea level illustrate this warming trend. In the Arctic, changes in sea ice are a key indicator and agent of [[climate change]], affecting surface reflectivity, cloudiness, humidity, exchanges of heat and moisture at the ocean surface, and ocean currents. <br />
<br />
The changes in sea ice have enormous economic, environmental, and social implications. There are negative impacts on ice-dependent wildlife and northern peoples, like the Inuit, with a traditional subsistence lifestyle based on hunting mammals on or adjacent to sea ice. Changes may also have positive economic effects, as they may facilitate increased marine transportation, economic development, and immigration into the region.<br />
<br />
===Small Islands===<br />
Small islands are vulnerable to the impacts of [[climate change]], [[sea level rise]], and extreme events because of their size and exposure to natural hazards and their limited adaptive capacity. Islands represent early indicators of [[climate change]] for the rest of the world. As islands often depend on rainwater they are vulnerable to changes rainfall as well as its distribution. <br />
<br />
Like many parts of the equatorial and tropical world, human health is impacted by [[climate change]]. Subsistence and commercial agriculture on small islands will be impacted by [[sea level rise]] due to flooding, salt water intrusion in fresh water, salination of the soils and decline in water quality and quantity. Infrastructure and development are affected by [[sea level rise]] and extreme events, which affect tourism, agriculture, and the delivery of health, fresh water, food, and other essential services. Coral reefs, marine fisheries, and marine resources will also be affected by [[climate change]] and climate variability. Small islands with a large Exclusive Economic Zone already have limited capacity to manage those zones, and these management issues will only be compounded by [[climate change]].<br />
<br />
===Africa===<br />
Africa is also very vulnerable to [[climate change]], with negative impacts expected for watersheds, coasts, and seas of Africa, worsening desertification in northern and southern Africa, and reductions in the development of the continent overall. The [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/tar.htm Third Assessment Report] predicted that the effects of [[climate change]] would be greatest in developing countries in terms of loss of life and relative effects on the investment and economy. Africa was described as the world’s poorest region and the continent most vulnerable to the impacts of projected change, because widespread poverty limits adaptation capabilities. There has been limited scientific research on [[climate change]] in Africa, but local scientific networks for [[climate change]] are developing.<br />
<br />
==Maintaining the worlds ecosystems==<br />
<br />
Maintaining the [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] services of the oceans is instrumental in achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, as at least four of the eight goals are closely linked to the conservation and use of natural resources, including living marine resources. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, relying on the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, identifies fishing as the most important driver of change in the marine [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] for the past fifty years. It is now apparent that, aside from pollution and over fishing, climate variability and change, including [[acidification of the oceans|acidification]], may threaten the productivity of oceans. <br />
<br />
The challenge for governments is to understand the complex processes for oceans and [[climate change]], and to have adequate policies. On a global and regional level, [[climate change]] science and policy needs to be added to the oceans agenda, and ocean science and policy needs to be inserted in the climate agenda. Information on [[climate change]] and related policy issues for oceans needs to be included in the annual United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and Law of the Sea, as well as in the global marine assessment agreed to at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, which is now in the start-up phase of an assessment. Additionally, information on ocean and climate sciences and related policy measures should be included in meetings of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] Parties and the Convention Dialogue, beginning in May 2006. <br />
<br />
===Mitigation===<br />
Adaptation is not enough; mitigation is also required through the reduction of greenhouse gases and the shift to renewable energy and energy efficiencies. It is necessary to think globally, plan regionally, and act locally. Due to their complexity, climate issues require input from many disciplines and the integration of ecosystem-based and other integrated approaches. There is a need for a constant dialogue between scientists and decision-makers. Scientific data and analysis, from accurate and timely predictions of hurricanes, to improved global and regional forecasts of future [[sea level rise]], and the impacts of [[ocean acidification]], lay the foundation for adaptation policy discussions and the development of climate strategies. In order to be effective, this data and analysis need to be communicated to decision-makers on a timely basis and in an appropriate language. <br />
<br />
The timing of policy development and science must be synchronized, so that the long and short-term windows for science and decision-making can be synchronized accordingly. Short-term windows for decision-making may be advantageous as they allow the inclusion of new and more detailed information and predictions. In the future, data may make it possible for scientists to accurately predict climate variability and change. The challenge will then be how to convert these predictions into adaptation policies for fisheries management, harbour development, or civil emergency planning. Global [[climate change]] scenarios need to be checked against more specific studies at regional and sub-regional levels. As policies adapt to [[climate change]] and variability, it is important to consider opportunities as well as risks. With accelerating [[climate change]] and variability, reliable scientific information becomes crucial for formulating policy on a wide variety of issues, including fisheries, marine infrastructure, and transportation. Therefore, more resources need to be devoted to ocean climate research, paying attention to the short and medium term, to the regional impacts as well as the global impacts, to monitoring and management approaches across vulnerable coastal and marine [[ecosystems]], and to the benefits as well as the risks of [[climate change]].<br />
<br />
==Problems==<br />
<br />
There will be common problems in adapting to [[climate change]] by Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and less developed regions and countries within Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Central and South America, and the Pacific. For SIDS, there is a need to enhance economic, ecological, and social resilience in an integrated manner. Effective implementation of adaptation measures is critical to ensure sustainable development, and SIDS governments are already incorporating adaptation measures into national sustainable development strategies for infrastructure, economic development, disaster management, environment, [[biodiversity and conservation|conservation and biodiversity]]. <br />
<br />
SIDS urgently need financial resources and technical support, as recognized and committed under the UNFCCC process, including funding arrangements for the development and transfer of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies as a way of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The integration of the Mauritius Strategy for the sustainable development of SIDS in the work programme of the UNFCCC is crucial to address SIDS concerns on [[climate change]]. The appeal of the SIDS through the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) for discussion of implementation of the Mauritius Strategy should be considered. The SIDS strongly oppose carbon dioxide sequestration and nuclear power as options to address [[climate change]].<br />
<br />
==Fourth Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts and Islands==<br />
<br />
The 4th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands will mobilize high-level policy and decision makers, topical working groups, analytical papers, and other contributions to provide a review of progress achieved in advancing [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] management and integrated coastal and ocean management by 2010 at national and regional, transboundary levels. It will focus on the 64% of the ocean beyond national jurisdiction, and on the goals of reducing marine [[biodiversity]] loss by 2010 and establishing networks of marine protected areas by 2012. These goals are considered in the context of [[climate change]], which, as indicated in the 2007 report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), will have profound effects on [[ecosystems]] and coastal populations around the world. <br />
<br />
The conference will be held in Hanoi, Vietnam. Vietnam has made significant strides in coastal and marine management in recent years through the development of integrated coastal management, marine protected areas, and a national ocean strategy, and was chosen as the first "pilot" country in the UN's effort to unify the work of its agencies at the national level through its "One UN" pilot program. <br />
<br />
The Global Conference is organized by the Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands, and by the Government of Vietnam, with the leadership of the Ministry of Fisheries, and with leadership roles by the Global Environment Facility, the GEF IW: LEARN Program, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO, and the UN Environment Programme's Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. Key ocean-oriented governments, nongovernmental organizations, and industry will play a pivotal role in the organization of the Conference and the dissemination of its outputs. <br />
<br />
==Conference themes==<br />
<br />
The Conference will focus on three major themes related to achieving [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] management and integrated coastal and ocean management at national and regional levels, and in areas beyond national jurisdiction, as follows: <br />
<br />
'''Theme 1. Achieving Ecosystem management and integrated coastal and ocean management by 2010''' <br />
<br />
Cross-cutting issues: <br />
Large Marine [[Ecosystems]] <br />
Marine [[Biodiversity]] and Networks of Marine Protected Areas <br />
Linking the Management of Freshwater, Oceans, and Coasts <br />
Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Implementation of the Mauritius International Strategy <br />
Fisheries and Aquaculture-Sustainability and Governance <br />
Enhancing Ocean Use Access Agreements in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of Developing Nations <br />
Tourism <br />
Maritime Transportation <br />
<br />
'''Theme 2. Climate, Oceans, and Security: Addressing Impacts in Vulnerable [[Ecosystems]] and in Vulnerable Coastal Communities''' <br />
<br />
Cross-cutting Issues: <br />
# Vulnerable Communities (Adaptation, Environmental Refugees, Public Health); <br />
# Vulnerable [[Ecosystems]] (Natural Disasters, Sea Level Rise, Ocean [[acidification of the oceans|Acidification]], Ocean Warming) <br />
#Small Island Developing States and the Mauritius Strategy <br />
<br />
A Working Group on Climate, Oceans and Security is being formed to provide information and recommendations to the Fourth Global Conference.<br />
<br />
'''Theme 3. Addressing the Governance of Marine [[Ecosystems]] and Uses in Areas Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction''' <br />
<br />
Cross-cutting issues:<br />
# Overall Governance Issues; <br />
# [[Ecosystems]] and Uses (Marine [[Biodiversity]], Fisheries, Bioprospecting, Deep Seabed Mining, Tourism, Maritime Transportation) <br />
<br />
The Conference also identifies cverarching, cross-cutting issues accross all themes: <br />
Poverty Reduction, <br />
Capacity Development, <br />
Marine [[ecosystems|Ecosystem]] Productivity/Services, <br />
Indicators for Progress, <br />
Compliance and Enforcement, and<br />
Public Education/OUtreach/Media<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:[http://www.globaloceans.org/ Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands] <br />
:[http://www.globaloceans.org/globalconferences/2006/pdf/OutcomesClimate.pdf Summary of Oceans and Climate Panel, Third Global Conference for Oceans, Coasts and Islands]<br />
:Sustainable Development Law and Policy: Oceans and Fisheries Law Issue (Volume VII, Issue 1, Fall 2007)- Oceans and Climate Change: Global and Arctic Perspectives by M.A.K. Muir [http://www.globaloceans.org/globalconferences/2008/index.html]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorFullName=Magdalena Muir<br />
|AuthorName=MagdalenaMuir}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:Arctic]]<br />
[[Category:Atmospheric processes, air and climate]]<br />
[[Category:Climate change and global warming]]<br />
[[Category:Coral reefs/tropical oceans]]<br />
[[Category:Ecological processes and ecosystems]]<br />
[[Category:Ecosystem-based management in coastal and marine zones]]<br />
[[Category:Land and ocean interactions]]<br />
[[Category:Sea ice ecosystems]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=20000European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-03-16T08:02:40Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the [[Black Sea]] <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, [[carbon]] and [[nitrogen]] in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
[[Image:N dep atm.jpg|thumb|px380|Figure 2. Total atmospheric nitrogen deposition to North Sea, 1999, in ton N per km2(source: Hertel et al, 2002)<ref name="Hertel2002"/>]]<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
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<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
[[Image:Mass budget AandB.jpg|thumb|650px|Figure 3. Mass budget for (A) ammonium and (B) nitrate in the tidal rivers (right) and in the saline estuary of the Western Scheldt (left) in the summer of 1990, 2002 and 2010. Processes: resp=aerobic respiration; nitrif=nitrification; denit=denitrification; npp=net primary production. Transport fluxes are positive seawards. All fluxes are given in kmol day<sup>-1</sup>. Top arrow: Riverine and lateral inputs; Left arrow: export to the coastal zone. (source: <ref name="Vanderborght"/> Vanderborght et al., 2007]]<br />
The [[Scheldt River]] and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The [[Scheldt]] estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the [[Western Scheldt]] for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
:[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
:[[Eutrophication]]<br />
:[[Nutrient analysers]]<br />
:[[Nutrient cycling]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Pierre Regnier<br />
|AuthorName=Pierre Regnier}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Claudette Spiteri<br />
|AuthorName=Claudette Spiteri}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=19379European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-02-02T23:16:25Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the Black Sea <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, carbon and nitrogen in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
[[Image:N dep atm.jpg|thumb|px380|Figure 2. Total atmospheric nitrogen deposition to North Sea, 1999, in ton N per km2(source: Hertel et al, 2002)<ref name="Hertel2002"/>]]<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
[[Image:Mass budget AandB.jpg|thumb|650px|Figure 3. Mass budget for (A) ammonium and (B) nitrate in the tidal rivers (right) and in the saline estuary of the Western Scheldt (left) in the summer of 1990, 2002 and 2010. Processes: resp=aerobic respiration; nitrif=nitrification; denit=denitrification; npp=net primary production. Transport fluxes are positive seawards. All fluxes are given in kmol day<sup>-1</sup>. Top arrow: Riverine and lateral inputs; Left arrow: export to the coastal zone. (source: <ref name="Vanderborght"/> Vanderborght et al., 2007]]<br />
The Scheldt River and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The Scheldt estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the Western Scheldt for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
:[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
:[[Eutrophication]]<br />
:[[Nutrient analysers]]<br />
:[[Nutrient cycling]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Pierre Regnier<br />
|AuthorName=Pierre Regnier}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Claudette Spiteri<br />
|AuthorName=Claudette Spiteri}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=19373European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-02-02T23:11:16Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the Black Sea <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, carbon and nitrogen in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
[[Image:N dep atm.jpg|thumb|px380|Figure 2. Total atmospheric nitrogen deposition to North Sea, 1999, in ton N per km2(source: Hertel et al, 2002)<ref name="Hertel2002"/>]]<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
[[Image:Mass budget AandB.jpg|thumb|650px|Figure 3. Mass budget for (A) ammonium and (B) nitrate in the tidal rivers (right) and in the saline estuary of the Western Scheldt (left) in the summer of 1990, 2002 and 2010. Processes: resp=aerobic respiration; nitrif=nitrification; denit=denitrification; npp=net primary production. Transport fluxes are positive seawards. All fluxes are given in kmol day<sup>-1</sup>. Top arrow: Riverine and lateral inputs; Left arrow: export to the coastal zone. (source: <ref name="Vanderborght"/> Vanderborght et al., 2007]]<br />
The Scheldt River and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The Scheldt estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the Western Scheldt for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
:[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
:[[Eutrophication]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Pierre Regnier<br />
|AuthorName=Pierre Regnier}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Claudette Spiteri<br />
|AuthorName=Claudette Spiteri}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=19366European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-02-02T23:02:16Z<p>Caitlin: /* SEE ALSO */</p>
<hr />
<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the Black Sea <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, carbon and nitrogen in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
[[Image:N dep atm.jpg|thumb|px380|Figure 2. Total atmospheric nitrogen deposition to North Sea, 1999, in ton N per km2(source: Hertel et al, 2002)<ref name="Hertel2002"/>]]<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
[[Image:Mass budget AandB.jpg|thumb|650px|Figure 3. Mass budget for (A) ammonium and (B) nitrate in the tidal rivers (right) and in the saline estuary of the Western Scheldt (left) in the summer of 1990, 2002 and 2010. Processes: resp=aerobic respiration; nitrif=nitrification; denit=denitrification; npp=net primary production. Transport fluxes are positive seawards. All fluxes are given in kmol day<sup>-1</sup>. Top arrow: Riverine and lateral inputs; Left arrow: export to the coastal zone. (source: <ref name="Vanderborght"/> Vanderborght et al., 2007]]<br />
The Scheldt River and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The Scheldt estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the Western Scheldt for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==REFERENCES==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==EXTERNAL LINKS==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
==SEE ALSO==<br />
:[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
:[[Eutrophication]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=European_Context_of_Nutrient_Dynamics&diff=19365European Context of Nutrient Dynamics2008-02-02T23:01:54Z<p>Caitlin: New page: Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the conti...</p>
<hr />
<div>Nutrient budgets and fluxes have been established at the local (major rivers) and regional (coastal seas) scales across Europe. Two examples are provided below: (1) a N budget of the continental inputs to the North Sea<ref name="Galloway1995"> Galloway, J., W. Chlesinger, H. Levy, A. Michaels, and J. Schnoor (1995), Nitrogen fixaton: Anthropogenic enhancement and environmental response, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9, 235-252.</ref> and (2) a N budget of major riverine inputs and transformations along the Western Scheldt river-estuarine system<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Other nutrient budgets have been established, among others, for the Western shelf of the Black Sea <ref name=”Gregoire2004”> Gregoire, M., and J. Friedrich (2004), Nitrogen budget of the northwestern Black Sea shelf inferred from modeling studies and in situ benthic measurements, Marine Ecology Progress Series 270, 15-39.</ref> and the Baltic Sea<ref name=”Wulff2001”> Wulff, F., L. Rahm, A. - K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg (2001), A nutrient budget model of the Baltic Sea. Chapter 13 A systems analysis of the Baltic Sea. Ecological Studies, F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson Eds., (Springer Verlag) Vol 148, pp 353-372.</ref> . At a smaller scale, detailed estimates of the nutrient sources, transport and transformations are also available for the Seine and Humber continuums<ref name=”Garnier1995”> Garnier, J., G. Billen, and M. Coste (1995), Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: observations and modeling, Limnology and Oceanography 40, 750-765.</ref> ,<ref name=”Tappin2003”> Tappin, A.D., J.R.W. Harris and R.J. Uncles (2003) The fluxes and transformations of suspended particles, carbon and nitrogen in the Humber Estuary (UK) from 1994 to 1996 : results from an integrated observation and modelling study. The Science of the Total Environment 314/316, 665-713.</ref> .<br />
<br />
==North Sea==<br />
[[Image:N dep atm.jpg|thumb|px380|Figure 2. Total atmospheric nitrogen deposition to North Sea, 1999, in ton N per km2(source: Hertel et al, 2002)<ref name="Hertel2002"/>]]<br />
The continental inputs of nitrogen to the North Sea originate from rivers, atmospheric inputs and, to a much smaller extent, direct discharges and dumping<ref name="Galloway1995"/>. The riverine contributions are summarized in Table 1 and, collectively, amount to almost twice that of atmospheric inputs<ref name="Jickells 1998">Jickells T.D. (1998), Nutrient Biogeochemistry of the Coastal Zone, Science, 281 217 – 222</ref>. Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the total atmospheric N deposition to the North Sea. The spatial pattern results from the distribution of the source areas and precipitation rates. On average, deposition amounts to 0.9 ton N per km2, with deposition up to 50% higher than average around territorial waters of Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Approximately 60% of total atmospheric N deposition results from combustion (nitrogen oxides) and approximately 40% from agricultural activities (ammonia) <ref name="Hertel2002"> Hertel, O., C. Ambelas Skjøth, L.M. Frohn, E. Vignati, J. Frydendall, G. de Leeuw, U. Schwarz, and S. Reiset (2002), Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27 ,1507 – 1515.</ref> . <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"<br />
|+Table 1: Annual river inputs (ton per year) of nitrogen for all relevant rivers around the North Sea (source: Radach and Lenhart, 1995) <ref name="Radach1995">Radach, G., and H.J. Lenhart (1995), Nutrient dynamics in the North Sea: Fluxes and budgets in the water derived from ERSEM, Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 33, 301-335.</ref> . P and S fluxes are also shown<br />
|-<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | River<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | N<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | P<br />
! style="background:#efefef;" | Si<br />
|-<br />
|Firth of Forth<br />
|20<br />
|186<br />
|11<br />
|-<br />
|Tyne/Tees<br />
|14735<br />
|593<br />
|9309<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Humber <br />
|60636<br />
|5891<br />
|17928<br />
|-<br />
|Thames <br />
|26214<br />
|3786<br />
|14931<br />
|-<br />
|Ems <br />
|25736<br />
|614<br />
|6805<br />
|-<br />
|Noordzeekanaal <br />
|10877<br />
|1767<br />
|3912<br />
|-<br />
|Lauwer <br />
|333<br />
|143<br />
|25<br />
|-<br />
|Lake IJssel/Kornwerderzand <br />
|12320<br />
|461<br />
|3588<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
Lake IJssel/Den Oever <br />
|21232<br />
|80<br />
|5170<br />
|-<br />
|Meuse <br />
|91159<br />
|4400<br />
|34402<br />
|-<br />
|Rhine <br />
|191543<br />
|14194<br />
|69623<br />
|-<br />
|Scheldt <br />
|31670<br />
|2116<br />
|15077<br />
|-<br />
|Yzer <br />
|267<br />
|109 <br />
|37<br />
|-<br />
|Elbe <br />
|126314 <br />
|3822 <br />
|34520<br />
|-<br />
|Jade <br />
|8 <br />
|3<br />
|2 <br />
|-<br />
|Schleswig-Holstein river <br />
|8<br />
|3 <br />
|2<br />
|-<br />
|Weser <br />
|52862 <br />
|3420 <br />
|18470<br />
|-<br />
|Danish rivers <br />
|1227 <br />
|513 <br />
|136<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Western Scheldt Estuary==<br />
[[Image:Mass budget AandB.jpg|thumb|650px|Figure 3. Mass budget for (A) ammonium and (B) nitrate in the tidal rivers (right) and in the saline estuary of the Western Scheldt (left) in the summer of 1990, 2002 and 2010. Processes: resp=aerobic respiration; nitrif=nitrification; denit=denitrification; npp=net primary production. Transport fluxes are positive seawards. All fluxes are given in kmol day<sup>-1</sup>. Top arrow: Riverine and lateral inputs; Left arrow: export to the coastal zone. (source: <ref name="Vanderborght"/> Vanderborght et al., 2007]]<br />
The Scheldt River and its tributaries drain 21,580 km<sup>2</sup> in northwestern France, northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands<ref name=”Wollast1988”> Wollast, R. (1988), The Scheldt estuary. Pollution of the North Sea: An Assessment, W. Salamons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma, and U. Forstner Eds., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) pp. 183-193.</ref> . The Scheldt estuary is a a macrotidal system, with an average residence time in brackish waters of 1 to 3 months. The mixing zone of fresh and salt waters extends over a distance of 70 to 100 km. The area of tidal influence goes up to 160 km from the river mouth and includes the major <ref name=”Regnier1997”>Regnier, P., R. Wollast, and C.I. Steefel (1997), Long-Term Fluxes of Reactive Species in Macrotidal Estuaries. Estimates from a Fully Transient, Multi Component Reaction-Transport Model, Marine Chemistry 58, 127-145.</ref> . <br />
<br />
The hydrographical basin includes one of the most heavily populated regions of Europe, where highly diversified industrial activity has developed. As a consequence, the whole catchment was heavily polluted until the mid 1970s, when water degradation culminated due to the continuous increase of nutrient and organic mater inputs. The level of wastewater treatment, especially in the upstream zones, was an important factor contributing to this degradation. The estuary was particularly affected by domestic and industrial inputs from the great Brussels, Antwerp and Gent areas<ref name="Vanderborght"/> . Since then, better management of industrial and domestic wastewater point sources has led to a progressive improvement of the environmental conditions in the estuary. Billen et al. (2005) <ref name=”B&G2005”> Billen, G., J. Garnier, and V. Rousseau (2005), Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Ecological structures and functions in the Scheldt Estuary: from past to future. P. Meire, and S. Van Damme Eds. Hydrobiologia 540(1-3), 46-67.</ref> and Soetaert et al. (2006) <ref name=”Soetaert 2006”> Soetaert, K. J.J. Middelburg, C. Heip, P. Meire, S. Van Damme, and T. Maris (2006), Long-term change in dissolved inorganic nutrients in the heterotrophic Scheldt estuary (Belgium, The Netherlands), Limnology and Oceanography 51, 409-423.</ref> provide two recent comprehensive reviews of this long term evolution. <br />
<br />
A mass budget for nitrogen has been established for the saline estuary (km 0 to100) and for the tidal river network (km 100 to 160) of the Western Scheldt for the summer months<ref name=<br />
"Vanderborght">Vanderborght, J-P, I. Folmer, D. Rodriguez Aguilera, T. Uhrenholt, and P. Regnier (2007), Reactive-transport modelling of a river-estuarine coastal zone system: application to the Western Scheldt, Marine Chemistry 106, 92-110.</ref> . Three periods have been analyzed (1990, 2002 and 2010). This allows for the assessment of the influence the secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment in the catchment on the N dynamics. Figure 3 shows that the tidal river and the estuary contribute almost equally to the overall biogeochemical cycling of N, despite the very different volumes involved. For the simulated periods, the large decrease in N input (> 55 %) expected between 1990 and 2010 will not lead to a significant decrease of N export to the coastal zone during the summer period.<br />
<br />
==REFERENCES==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==EXTERNAL LINKS==<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/contents.htm ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems ONLINE]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/pdf/nutrient_dynamics.pdf ELOISE Nutrient Dynamics in European Water Systems in pdf format]<br />
:[http://www.eloisegroup.org/themes/nutrients/casesintro.htm Case studies]<br />
:[http://www.loicz.org/ LOICZ Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone]<br />
<br />
==SEE ALSO==<br />
[[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation]]<br />
[[Eutrophication]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=19357Eutrophication2008-02-02T22:49:04Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition<br />
|title=<br />
Eutrophication<br />
|definition= (1) An increase in the supply of organic matter.<ref name="NIXON">Nixon, S. W. (1995) Coastal marine eutrophication: a definition, social causes, and future concerns. ''Ophelia'', 41, 199–219.[ISI]</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
(2) A condition in an aquatic ecosystem where high nutrient concentrations stimulate growth of [[algae]] which leads to imbalanced functioning of the system.<ref> HELCOM webpage, 2006 [http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/eutrophication/en_GB/front/]</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
(3) The enrichment of water by [[nutrients]], especially nitrogen and/or phosphorus and organic matter, causing an increased growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an unacceptable deviation in structure, function and stability of organisms present in the water and to the quality of water concerned, compared to reference conditions.<ref name="And">Andersen, J. H., Schlüter, L. and Ærtebjerg, G. (2006) Coastal eutrophication: recent developments in definitions and implications for monitoring strategies. ''J. Plankton Res''. 28(7): 621-628.</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Links==<br />
[[Eutrophication in coastal environments]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Geographical_Information_System&diff=19348Geographical Information System2008-02-02T21:56:02Z<p>Caitlin: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article provides a description of Geographic Information System ([[Definition GIS|GIS]]), what it is, what it does and how it is used in coastal management. There are links to the wider GIS community.<br />
<br />
==What is GIS?==<br />
[[Image:GISdefinition.jpg|thumb]]<br />
A Geographic Information System organizes large volumes of raw data into a map form for easy comprehension. It divides raw data into layers so it can give you a better understanding for the whole world.<br />
<br />
<br />
A GIS is designed for the collection, storage, and analysis of objects and phenomena where geographic location is an important characteristic or critical to the analysis - this definition is broad and applies to a wide variety of methods for storing, accessing, and manipulating geographic information; it does not limit GIS to the computer environment<ref name="Cox">Cox, A., Gifford, F. An overview to geographic information systems. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, Volume 23, Issue 6, November 1997, Pages 449-461</ref> .<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
GIS handles SPATIAL information - i.e. information referenced by its location in space.<br />
[[Image:Spatialinfo.jpg|400px|center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
GIS technology can be utilised in all areas dealing with georeferenced information, including:<br />
*scientific research/investigations<br />
*resource and asset management<br />
*[[Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)]]<br />
*urban planning<br />
*cartography<br />
*and many other areas.<br />
<br />
==GIS Data==<br />
GIS stores ''geographic coordinate data'' (spatial data) and ''attribute data''. ''Spatial data'' represents features having known locations on earth. Can be one of points (0-Dimensional), lines (1-Dimensional) or areas (2-Dimensional), while ''attribute data'' is non-graphic information linked to the geographical features (spatial data) describing features eg type of road, name, history. Attribute data are stored in an attribute table that is connected to the spatial data.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Data formats===<br />
Discrete and continuous data can be represented, and two basic formats are used for storing and processing coordinate data: Vector and Raster.<br />
<br />
'''Vector:'''<br />
Vector data type uses point locations (X,Y coordinate), or polyline/polygons, as representation. An advantage this has is that less storage space is used and can be easier to combine different vector layers, while a disadvantage is that it may be more difficult to perform certain overlay functions.<br />
<br />
'''Raster:'''<br />
Data is stored as a matrix of pixels. To analyse or overlay multiple data layers, the layers must share a common projection and coordinate system, and layers must have topology established. An advantage is that neighbourhood analysis can be performed easily, and a disadvantage is that it is necessary to store the entire matrix.<br />
<br />
===Data types===<br />
<br />
Some types of data used in GIS are listed below:<br />
*Satellite images<br />
*Geographical maps<br />
*Wave time series & Rose<br />
*Scanned Maps<br />
*CAD drawing [[Image:CADdrawing.jpg|thumb|right|CAD drawing]]<br />
Additional data include:<br />
*Land use<br />
*Sediment classification<br />
*DFS2 Data [http://www.dhigroup.com/Software/Marine/MIKE21.aspx MIKE 21]<br />
*Dfs1 Data MIKE 21<br />
*XYZ Data<br />
*Reports (design, licenses, Site investigation), etc.<br />
[[Image:Mike21data.jpg|thumb|right|Dfs2 Data MIKE 21]]<br />
<br />
Map data is separated and stored in layers usually based on common geographical themes or data type. An alternative is objected-oriented GIS, where geographical and all other information regarding a feature stored as an object.<br />
<br />
==GIS functions==<br />
*Data input<br />
*Storage<br />
*Management<br />
*Analysis<br />
*Output<br />
<br />
<br />
===Data input===<br />
Data input can be via:<br />
*Import of raw data (ASCII)<br />
*keyboard entry <br />
*digitising maps<br />
*digital scanning<br />
<br />
<br />
===Storing data using Geodatabase===<br />
[[Image:Geodatabase.jpg|400px|right]]<br />
A geodatabase is a container for spatial and non-spatial data that can be organized in a certain structure. It has the advantages of providing a single, consolidated data storage for field measurements and all types of data used, and the ability of controlling data entry by applying validation rule on the attributes.<br />
<br style="clear:both;"/><br />
<br />
===Data management===<br />
Database management system controls the way data are stored and retrieved. This includes verifying geographic coordinates and examining for accuracy.<br />
<br />
===GIS analysis===<br />
GIS analysis creates new data by manipulating existing data or analyzing relationships between sets of data. It's basic operations include:<br />
*retrieval <br />
*map generalization<br />
*map abstractions<br />
*map sheet manipulation<br />
*map abstractions<br />
*map sheet manipulation<br />
*buffer generation<br />
*polgygon overlay and dissolve<br />
*measurements<br />
*digital terrain analysis, and <br />
*network analysis<ref name="Cox"/><br />
<br />
===Output===<br />
The display of output is achieved through printers and computer screens. Data might also be exported to formats supported by other tools.<br />
<br />
==Benefits of GIS==<br />
GIS has many benefits, which include:<br />
*Analysis of spatial data in a complex environment<br />
*Ability to integrate different databases into one environment<br />
*Ability to display and manage spatial data in a spatial context<br />
*Rapid production of specialized maps and graphic products<br />
*Performs complex spatial analysis<br />
<br />
==Coastal Zone Management and GIS==<br />
[[Image:GISCZM3.jpg|350px|left|Coastal Zone management: GIS perspective]]<br />
GIS stores all data relevant for [[Coastal Zone Management]]. It handles data on all spatial scales (Entire regional coast vs. a single harbour) and is a powerful analysis tool, allowing the comparison of measurements from different years, as well as overlay analysis of measurements and modelling results.<br />
<br style="clear:both;"/><br />
:<small>Fig: Coastal Zone Management: GIS perspective</small><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.gisig.it/ GISIG] –-- Geographical Information Systems International Group <br />
:[http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html GIS WWWW resource list] of servers likely to be of interest to the GIS community<br />
:[http://support.esri.com/index.cfm?fa=knowledgebase.gisDictionary.gateway GIS dictionary]<br />
:[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system Wikipedia: GIS]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine information and knowledge management]]<br />
[[Category:Techniques and methods in coastal management]]<br />
[[Category:Spatial planning in coastal and marine zones]]<br />
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{{author<br />
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|AuthorID=12941<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ulrik Lumborg<br />
|AuthorName=UlrikLumborg}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mass_budget_AandB.jpg&diff=19175File:Mass budget AandB.jpg2008-01-27T20:37:27Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mass_budget_B.jpg&diff=19170File:Mass budget B.jpg2008-01-27T20:28:31Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mass_budget_A.jpg&diff=19169File:Mass budget A.jpg2008-01-27T20:28:05Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:N_dep_atm.jpg&diff=19167File:N dep atm.jpg2008-01-27T20:25:45Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sources_sinks.jpg&diff=19165File:Sources sinks.jpg2008-01-27T20:23:27Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Excellent_article&diff=17820Help:Excellent article2007-12-05T02:50:47Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
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<div>==Characteristics of an excellent Coastal Wiki article==<br />
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An excellent Coastal Wiki article is well written, comprehensive, factually accurate, neutral and stable. <br />
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(a) "Well written" means that the prose is compelling, understandable for non-experts, avoids unnecessary technical terms and unexplained abbreviations.<br />
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(b) "Comprehensive" means that the article provides relevant context and relationships.<br />
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(c) "Factually accurate" means that claims are verifiable against reliable sources and accurately present the related body of published knowledge. Claims are supported with specific evidence and external citations; this involves the provision of a "References" section in which sources are set out and, where appropriate, complemented by online citations. See also the [[Coastal Wiki Rules]].<br />
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(d) "Neutral" means that the article presents views fairly and without bias; however, articles need not give minority views equal coverage.<br />
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(e) "Stable" means that the article is not the subject of ongoing edit wars and that its content does not change significantly from day to day.<br />
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It complies with the [[Guidelines]] and the [[Template]]: <br />
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(a) a concise lead section that summarizes the entire topic and prepares the reader for the higher level of detail in the subsequent sections;<br />
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It has illustrations, boxes and tables, if they are appropriate to the subject, with succinct captions and acceptable copyright status. It is of appropriate length (typically 500-1000 words), staying focused on the main topic without going into unnecessary detail. Appropriate links are created with related articles for information on broader context or on specific details.<br />
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[[Category:Help]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Eutrophication_in_coastal_environments&diff=17817Eutrophication in coastal environments2007-12-05T01:18:49Z<p>Caitlin: /* European Coastal Areas */</p>
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'''[[Eutrophication]]''' is the enrichment of water as a result of an increase in nutrients, which can have a negative impact on the marine and coastal environment. The negative effects of [[eutrophication]] on marine [[ecosystems]] includes: algal blooms, increased growth of macroalgae, increased sedimentation and oxygen consumption, oxygen depletion in the bottom water and sometimes the death of [[benthic]] animals and fish. Coastal European areas in particular the Baltic Sea provides an indication as to the negative affects that [[eutrophication]] can have including: the presence of blue-green algae which is potentially harmful to humans as well as the presence of large mats of drifting algae that get deposited along the shorelines and decay. In order to reduce the negative effects of [[eutrophication]] nutrient inputs need to be reduced and an integrated management strategy needs to be employed. <br />
<br />
==Eutrophication in coastal environments==<br />
<br />
[[Eutrophication]] involves the enrichment of water by excess [[nutrients]]. It can cause serious problems in the coastal zone through disturbance of ecological balances and fisheries, and through interference with recreational activities and quality of life. [[Eutrophication]] is the result of an [[anthropogenic|anthropogenically]] induced alteration of the global nitrogen cycle, and just like [[climate change]], should be regarded as a "global change". [[Eutrophication]] is usually treated scientifically and in terms of management as a local and regional phenomenon. Coastal regions throughout the world and Europe are affected by [[eutrophication]].<br />
<br />
==What is eutrophication about?==<br />
[[image:Baltic.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 1. Cyanobacteria bloom, Western Baltic, 1997]]<br />
*It’s about '''increased productivity''' (conversion of light and carbon dioxide into living organic matter – a process that is limited by ''[[nitrogen]]'' and/or ''[[phosphorus]]'') and unacceptable ecological effects as [[algal blooms]] and oxygen depletion, kills off benthic animals and fish<br />
*It’s caused by '''increased inputs''' of [[nutrients]] from point sources, activities in the upstream catchment (''e.g.'' losses from agriculture) and atmospheric deposition.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===What are we really talking about?===<br />
;[[Eutrophication]] : “eu” = “well” or “good”<br />
:“trope” = “nourishment”[[image:German Bight.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2. Noctiluca milaris bloom, German Bight, 2000]]<br />
<br />
But is “''[[eutrophication]]''” good?<br />
*In general: NO … it is actually ”bad” …<br />
*Too many [[nutrients]] in the wrong places may cause problems and result in changes in structure, function and stability of the marine [[ecosystems]].<br />
<br />
*[[Eutrophication]] is ”too much of a good thing”<br />
<br />
==Effects of Eutrophication==<br />
The different processes and effects of coastal [[eutrophication]] are well documented<ref>Cloern, J. (2001) Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 210, 223–253.[ISI]</ref> <ref>Conley, D. J., Markager, S., Andersen, J. et al. (2002) Coastal eutrophication and the Danish National Aquatic Monitoring and Assessment Program. Estuaries, 25, 706–719.[Medline]</ref> <ref>Rönnberg, C. and Bonsdorff, E. (2004) Baltic Sea eutrophication: area-specific ecological consequences. Hydrobiologia, 514, 227–241.[CrossRef][ISI]</ref> and it has been considered as one of the biggest threats to marine [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] health for decades<ref>Ryther and Dunstan, 1971</ref> <ref>Nixon, S. W. (1995) Coastal marine eutrophication: a definition, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia, 41, 199–219.[ISI]</ref> <ref>Bachmann, R. W., Cloern, J. E., Heckey, R. E. et al. (eds) (2006) Eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems. Limnol. Oceanogr., 51 (1, part 2), 351–800.</ref>. <br />
<br />
[[Image:eutrophicationflow.jpg|600px|thumb|centre|Fig. 3. Eutrophication flow diagram. Source: HELCOM, 2006 <ref name="HELCOM">HELCOM, (2006) Andersen, J (DHI) and Pawlak, J (MEC), Nutrients and Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea – Effects, Causes, Solutions. Baltic Sea Parliamentary Conference.[http://sea.helcom.fi/dps/docs/documents/Monitoring%20and%20Assessment%20Group%20(MONAS)/EUTRO-PRO/EUTRO-PRO%203,%202006/BSPC%20Nutrients%20and%20Eutrophication%20in%20the%20BS.pdf]</ref><br />
]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Effects of [[eutrophication]] on marine [[ecosystems]] are well known<ref name="HELCOM"/>:<br />
*algal blooms resulting in green water<br />
*reduced depth distribution of submerged aquatic vegetation<br />
*increased growth of nuisance macroalgae<br />
*increased sedimentation, increased oxygen consumption<br />
*oxygen depletion in bottom water, and <br />
*sometimes dead benthic animals and fish. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image:koncept.jpg|500px|thumb|centre|Fig. 4. Eutrophication schematic. Source: HELCOM, 2006 <ref name="HELCOM"/>]]<br />
<br />
<br />
===General effects===<br />
Major effects of [[eutrophication]] include structure and function changes in the entire marine [[ecosystems|ecosystem]] and a reduction in stability. The following are responses to increased nutrient inputs<ref name="HELCOM"/>:<br />
#Corresponding increase in nutrient concentrations<br />
#Change in ratio between dissolved [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] in the water: ''DIN:DIP'' ratio. Optimal is 16:1 – called the ''[[Redfield ratio]]''. Significantly lower ratio causes potential [[nitrogen]] limitation; while a higher ratio leads to [[phosphorus]] limitation of [[phytoplankton]] [[primary production]]. <br />
<br />
<br />
''[[Primary production]]'' is usually limited by availability of light and nutrients.<br />
Nutrient enrichment increase [[phytoplankton]] [[primary production]], which increases biomass, which decreases light penetration through water column. Light penetration is measured by [[Secchi depth]] - a decreased [[Secchi depth]] can reduce colonization depth of macroalgae and [[seagrasses]].<br />
<br />
<br />
Responses to nutrient enrichment ([[pelagic]] [[ecosystems]]) involve a gradual change towards<ref name="HELCOM"/>:<br />
#Increased [[plankton|planktonic]] [[primary production]] compared to benthic production<br />
#Dominance of microbial food webs over linear [[plankton|planktonic]] food chains<br />
#Dominance of non-siliceous [[phytoplankton]] species over diatom species<br />
#Dominance of gelatinous [[zooplankton]] (jellyfish) over [[crustacea|crustacean]] [[zooplankton]]<br />
<br />
Finally, [[eutrophication]] issues<ref name="HELCOM"/> are often divided into three groups: <br />
#Causative factors: inputs, elevated nutrient concentrations, Redfield ratio changes<br />
#Direct effects: primary producers, namely ''[[phytoplankton]]'' and ''submerged aquatic vegetation''<br />
#Indirect effects (secondary effects): related to [[zooplankton]], fish and ínvertebrate benthic fauna (animals living on seafloor).<br />
<br />
===Primary and Secondary Effects===<br />
Some important primary and secondary effects are discussed in the sections below. <br />
<br />
====Phytoplankton====<br />
[[Phytoplankton]] are at base of pelagic food webs in aquatic systems, have generation times from less that a few days, respond rapidly to nutrient concentration changes, and are often quantified in terms of:<br />
#[[Primary production]]<br />
#Biomass (chlorophyll-a concentration, or carbon biomass)<br />
#Bloom frequency<br />
<br />
====Submerged aquatic vegetation==== <br />
Submerged aquatic vegetation are affected by [[eutrophication]] through<ref name="HELCOM"/>:<br />
#Reduced light penetration and shadowing effects from [[phytoplankton]] can reduce the depth distribution, biomass, composition and species diversity; and<br />
#increased growth of filamentous and short lived nuisance macroalgae at the cost of long lived species can lead to a change in structure of macroalgae communities with reduced diversity.<br />
Additionally,<br />
*[[Seagrasses|Seagrass]] meadows and perennial macroalgae are important nursery areas for coastal fish populations. <br />
*Short-lived (annual) nuisance macroalgae are favoured by large nutrient inputs.<br />
<br />
====Oxygen depletion<ref name="HELCOM"/>====<br />
Oxygen depletion, or ''[[hypoxia]]'', is a common effect of [[eutrophication]] in bottom waters. This effect may be episodic, occuring annually (most common in summer/autumn), persistent, or periodic in the coastal zone.<br />
*Lethally low oxygen concentrations depend on the species. Fish and crustaceans have higher oxygen requirements; other speices have lower requirements. <br />
*[[hypoxia|Hypoxic]] and anoxic (no oxygen) conditions may results in formation and release of hydrogen sulphide (H<sub>2</sub>S), which is lethal to organisms. <br />
*Anoxic periods cause the release of phophorus from sediments - dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP), and ammonium is released under [[hypoxia|hypoxic]] conditions. DIP and ammonium in water column can enhance [[algal blooms]].<br />
*The predicted effect of global warming is to increase [[hypoxia]] with increased temperature. A 4 degree temperature increase is projected to results in a doubling of [[hypoxia]] in some parts of North Sea.<br />
*An example of the effect: Eelgrass responds to low oxygen concentrations, and dies off under these conditions (often in combination with high temperatures)<br />
<br />
====Invertebrate benthic fauna<ref name="HELCOM"/>====<br />
Invertebrate [[benthic]] fauna can cope with oxygen depletion to varying degrees (days – month). If O<sub>2</sub> drops below zero and H<sub>2</sub>S is released all organisms are killed immediately. Mobile [[benthic]] invertebrates in sediment move to surface when O<sub>2</sub> decreases - there are increased catches of fish and crustaceans during these times. It is difficult to predict when animals will return after [[eutrophication]] events. The area affected plays a factor: small areas are recolonised and re-established more quickly than larger areas.<br />
<br />
===Climate change===<br />
*Seas are important in element cycling – carbon and nitrogen cycle; phosphorus and silicate cycle<br />
*Ocean still takes up more carbon than it releases – depositing some in sediments<br />
<br />
==Solutions==<br />
Nutrient inputs must be reduced to levels that do not put at risk target values for mitigation of [[eutrophication]]. Integrated management strategies should enable characterization of all pressures on water bodies in order to develop a coherent approach to deal with the pressures in a cost effective manner<ref name="HELCOM"/>.<br />
<br />
==European Coastal Areas==<br />
Eutrophication is the result of an anthropogenically induced alteration of the global nitrogen cycle, and just like climate change, should be regarded as a "global change". Eutrophication is usually treated scientifically and for management as a local and regional phenomenon. Coastal regions throughout the world and Europe are affected by eutrophication.<br />
<br />
Within Europe, regional seas such as the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas are currently adversely affected by eutrophication, with climate change expected to intensify these adverse impacts. As well as monitoring fresh water impacts on coastal areas, it will be important to monitor impacts between seas such as the Mediterranean and Black Seas. For example, the Black Sea is strongly eutrophic, and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the North Aegean near the borders of Greece and Turkey.<br />
<br />
More global approaches were considered in meetings such as the International Symposium on Research and Management of Eutrophication in Coastal Ecosystems from June 20 to 23, 2006 in Nyborg, Denmark. This meeting included a keynote speaker, a working seminar, produced some outcomes,and led to the creation of an European group to address the issue of climate change and eutrophication. <br />
<br />
The main source of nitrogen to European coastal waters is agricultural runoff discharged into the sea via rivers, identified as originating from sources of ammonia evaporation in animal husbandry and partly from fossil fuel combustion in traffic, industry and households<ref name="ECW">Ærtebjerg, G. et al., Eutrophication in Europe’s Coastal Waters. Topic Report No 7/2001. European Environment Agency. [http://reports.eea.europa.eu/topic_report_2001_7/en]</ref>. For phosphorus the major sources are treated and untreated discharges to the sea from households and industry as well as soil erosion<ref name="ECW"/>.<br />
<br />
Within Europe, regional seas such as the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas are currently adversely affected by [[eutrophication]], with [[climate change]] expected to intensify these adverse impacts. As well as monitoring fresh water impacts on coastal areas, it will be important to monitor impacts between seas such as the Mediterranean and Black Seas. For example, the Black Sea is strongly eutrophic, and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the North Aegean near the borders of Greece and Turkey.<br />
<br />
[[Eutrophication]] seriously affects the Baltic sea marine environment, resulting in [[algal blooms]], reduced water clarity, oxygen reduction and death of bottom animals. The causes behind this are well known<ref name="HELCOM"/>: discharges, losses and emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus to the aquatic environment. Reductions of discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants and industries have been the focus for many years as have losses and emissions of nitrogen compounds from agriculture and traffic.<br />
<br />
More global approaches were considered in meetings such as the [http://eutro2006.dhi.dk/ International Symposium on Research and Management of Eutrophication in Coastal Ecosystems] from June 20 to 23, 2006 in Nyborg, Denmark. This meeting included a keynote speaker, a working seminar, produced some outcomes,and led to the creation of an European group to address the issue of [[climate change]] and [[eutrophication]].<br />
<br />
====Causes in Baltic Sea====<br />
Human-mediated nutrient enrichment<ref name="HELCOM"/> in the Baltic Sea can be caused by input of nutrients in form of: <br />
#Direct inputs from point sources (sewage treatment plants, industries)<br />
#Atmospheric deposition<br />
#Riverine inputs (from activities in the catchment: eg point sources, agricultural losses, atmospheric deposition, natural background losses (natural erosion and leakage of nutrients from areas without much human activities) and stream, river and lake retention)<br />
<br />
'''Waterborne:''' Agriculture forestry, scattered dwellings, municipanlities, industries, natural background losses.<br />
<br />
'''Airborne:''' Nitrogen compounds emitted to atmosphere: <br />
*Nitrogen oxides: road transportation, energy combustion, shipping<br />
*Ammonia emissions: mostly from agriculture.<br />
*Distant sources<br />
<br />
'''The role of agriculture in nitrogen inputs:'''<br />
The main source of nitrogen inputs in Baltic Sea is agricultural discharge via rivers, deriving from:<br />
#Soil cultivation<br />
#Fertiliser use<br />
#Use of manure<br />
#Intensive and uncontrolled agriculture<br />
<br />
====Aspects of Eutrophication problem in the Baltic sea<ref name="HELCOM"/>====<br />
*Excessive [[phytoplankton]] blooms are a major problem – especially of blue-green algae. There are commonly summertime [[algal blooms]] in most parts of Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Riga, the Baltic Proper and south-western parts of Baltic Sea<br />
Problems caused:<br />
*bathing people can hardly see their feet<br />
*blue-green algae potentially toxic to humans and animals<br />
*large mats of drifting algae deposited along shores and decay<br />
<br />
====Baltic Sea Solutions====<br />
The following steps have been suggested<ref name="HELCOM"/><br />
#Establish overall goals and target values<br />
#Implement relevant measures directly linked to fulfillment of these overall goals and targets<br />
#Carry out monitoring<br />
#Conduct assessments<br />
#Evaluate whether the goals and targets have been fulfilled or not<br />
<br />
'''Main drivers:''' <br />
*European Directives (see links below)<br />
*Decisions and recommendations adopted by [http://www.helcom.fi HELCOM]<br />
*National action plans<br />
<br />
==EU Directives:==<br />
:[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/directiv.html EC Urban Waster Water Treatment Directive]<br />
:[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/directiv.html EC Nitrates Directive]<br />
:[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html EU Water Framework Directive]<br />
:[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/marine.htm Marine Strategy Directive]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
:[[Theme 4]] - Pollution<br />
:[[Water quality/pollution]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
:[http://www.BSPC.net Baltic Sea Parlimentary Conference ]<br />
:[http://www.bernet.org/wm125051 BERNET:] Baltic Eutrophication Regional Network <br />
:[http://www.BONUSportal.org BONUS] for the future of the Baltic Sea<br />
:[http://www.EEA.europa.eu European Environment Agency ]<br />
:[http://www.HELCOM.fi HELCOM ]<br />
:HELCOM Indicator fact sheets: <br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/en_GB/inflow water exchange]<br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/en_GB/winternutriets winter nutrient concentrations] <br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/en_GB/transparency water clarity] <br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/en_GB/blooms algal blooms]<br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/Chlorophyll-a/en_GB/chlorophyll chlorophyll-a concentrations]<br />
::[http://www.helcom.fi/environment2/ifs/ifs2005/en_GB/oxygen_deepbasins hydrography and oxygen in the deep basins]<br />
:[http://www.MARE.su.se MARE] Research program on Baltic Sea environmental issues <br />
:[http://www.dmu.dk/International/Water/ National Environment Research Institute (DK) Aquatic page]<br />
:[http://www2.dmu.dk/1_Viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_vand/4_eutrophication/definition.htm Nutrients and Eutrophication in Danish Marine Waters]<br />
:[http://www.OSPAR.org OSPAR] For the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic<br />
:[http://www.waterforecast.com/defaultUK.asp The Water Forecast]<br />
:Wikipedia: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophication Eutrophication article]<br />
:[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/europe/what_we_do/baltics/our_work/index.cfm WWF Baltic Ecoregion Programme]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:[http://sea.helcom.fi/dps/docs/documents/Monitoring%20and%20Assessment%20Group%20(MONAS)/EUTRO-PRO/EUTRO-PRO%203,%202006/BSPC%20Nutrients%20and%20Eutrophication%20in%20the%20BS.pdf Nutrients and Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea - Effects, Causes, Solutions] (HELCOM) - main reference for this article<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Further Reading==<br />
The Biology and Ecology of Seagrasses (ed. Brant W. Touchette), 2007. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, Volume 350, Issues 1-2, Pages 1-260 (9 November 2007), . http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00220981<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=13036<br />
|AuthorFullName=Caitlin Pilkington<br />
|AuthorName=CaitlinPilkington}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[category:Baltic]]<br />
[[category:Black sea]]<br />
[[category:Mediterranean]]<br />
[[category:Atmospheric processes, air and climate]]<br />
[[category:Biological processes and organisms]]<br />
[[category:Ecological processes and ecosystems]]<br />
[[category:Land and ocean interactions]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Foam_beach,_Sydney&diff=17816Foam beach, Sydney2007-12-05T01:02:30Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following pictures were taken in 2007 on the coast at Yamba in New South Wales, Australia. The Daily Mail in the UK published the images and the the following extract is taken from their article: [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/worldnews.html?in_article_id=478041&in_page_id=1811 Capuccino Coast: The day the Pacific was whipped up into an ocean of froth]. <br />
<br />
It stretched for 30 miles out into the Pacific in a phenomenon not seen at the beach for more than three decades. Scientists explain that the foam is created by impurities in the ocean, such as salts, chemicals, dead plants, decomposed fish and excretions from seaweed. All are churned up together by powerful currents which cause the water to form bubbles. These bubbles stick to each other as they are carried below the surface by the current towards the shore. As a wave starts to form on the surface, the motion of the water causes the bubbles to swirl upwards and, massed together, they become foam. The foam "surfs" towards shore until the wave "crashes", tossing the foam into the air.<br />
<br />
The foam was so thick it came all the way up to the surf club "It's the same effect you get when you whip up a milk shake in a blender," explains a marine expert. "The more powerful the swirl, the more foam you create on the surface and the lighter it becomes." In this case, storms off the New South Wales Coast and further north off Queensland had created a huge disturbance in the ocean, hitting a stretch of water where there was a particularly high amount of the substances which form into bubbles.<ref>Capuccino Coast, Daily Mail 28/08/07. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/worldnews.html?in_article_id=478041&in_page_id=1811 </ref><br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean3.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whipped_ocean3.jpg&diff=17815File:Whipped ocean3.jpg2007-12-05T00:53:32Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whipped_ocean2.jpg&diff=17814File:Whipped ocean2.jpg2007-12-05T00:53:05Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Foam_beach,_Sydney&diff=17813Foam beach, Sydney2007-12-05T00:52:48Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following pictures were taken in November 2007 on the coast at Yamba in New South Wales, Australia. <br />
<br />
It stretched for 30 miles out into the Pacific in a phenomenon not seen at the beach for more than three decades. Scientists explain that the foam is created by impurities in the ocean, such as salts, chemicals, dead plants, decomposed fish and excretions from seaweed. All are churned up together by powerful currents which cause the water to form bubbles. These bubbles stick to each other as they are carried below the surface by the current towards the shore. As a wave starts to form on the surface, the motion of the water causes the bubbles to swirl upwards and, massed together, they become foam. The foam "surfs" towards shore until the wave "crashes", tossing the foam into the air.<br />
<br />
The foam was so thick it came all the way up to the surf club "It's the same effect you get when you whip up a milk shake in a blender," explains a marine expert. "The more powerful the swirl, the more foam you create on the surface and the lighter it becomes." In this case, storms off the New South Wales Coast and further north off Queensland had created a huge disturbance in the ocean, hitting a stretch of water where there was a particularly high amount of the substances which form into bubbles. As for 12-year-old beachgoer Tom Woods, who has been surfing since he was two, riding a wave was out of the question.<br />
<br />
<br />
Children play among all the foam which was been whipped up by cyclonic conditions .<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean3.jpg]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whipped_ocean1.jpg&diff=17812File:Whipped ocean1.jpg2007-12-05T00:52:21Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Foam_beach,_Sydney&diff=17811Foam beach, Sydney2007-12-05T00:51:55Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>The following pictures were taken in November 2007 on the coast at Yamba in New South Wales, Australia. <br />
<br />
It stretched for 30 miles out into the Pacific in a phenomenon not seen at the beach for more than three decades. Scientists explain that the foam is created by impurities in the ocean, such as salts, chemicals, dead plants, decomposed fish and excretions from seaweed. All are churned up together by powerful currents which cause the water to form bubbles. These bubbles stick to each other as they are carried below the surface by the current towards the shore. As a wave starts to form on the surface, the motion of the water causes the bubbles to swirl upwards and, massed together, they become foam. The foam "surfs" towards shore until the wave "crashes", tossing the foam into the air.<br />
<br />
The foam was so thick it came all the way up to the surf club "It's the same effect you get when you whip up a milk shake in a blender," explains a marine expert. "The more powerful the swirl, the more foam you create on the surface and the lighter it becomes." In this case, storms off the New South Wales Coast and further north off Queensland had created a huge disturbance in the ocean, hitting a stretch of water where there was a particularly high amount of the substances which form into bubbles. As for 12-year-old beachgoer Tom Woods, who has been surfing since he was two, riding a wave was out of the question.<br />
<br />
<br />
Children play among all the foam which was been whipped up by cyclonic conditions .<br />
<br />
[[Image:Whipped ocean1.jpg]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qld1.jpg&diff=12102File:Qld1.jpg2007-10-15T10:13:40Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sandybeach5.jpg&diff=12099File:Sandybeach5.jpg2007-10-15T10:08:26Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sandybeach6.jpg&diff=12092File:Sandybeach6.jpg2007-10-15T09:58:30Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sandybeach1.jpg&diff=12089File:Sandybeach1.jpg2007-10-15T09:51:06Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ecosystem_assessment.png&diff=12077File:Ecosystem assessment.png2007-10-15T08:02:27Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Sea_and_Region,_including_Adriatic_Sea&diff=11949Mediterranean Sea and Region, including Adriatic Sea2007-10-02T11:50:10Z<p>Caitlin: /* Sea level rise, storm events and erosion */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Mediterranean Sea and Region==<br />
<br />
The Mediterranean Sea is a largely enclosed sea, with high temperature and salinity, and decreasing fresh water due to dams and river diversions. Under the changing climate regime, sea surface temperatures and salinity will increase. Biodiversity, conservation, water quality, quantity and seasonal flows are significantly affected. The negative impacts of pollution and nutrient may increase. Depending on the local characteristics, erosion, sediment deposition, drought, desertification and flooding may intensify or shift. Coastal and beach tourism is also an important source of income in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions, and the ongoing economic viability of these regions and local communities may depend on the maintenance of the coastal and marine ecosystems that tourism activity and other activities such as fisheries depend upon. <br />
<br />
All these uses must be consider in the context of climate change. For examples, for the Mediterranean, complex interactions between overfishing and climate change could facilitate ecosystem shifts. An example is the presence of algal blooms and jellyfish in Mediterranean due to combination of higher water temperatures, overfishing and nutrient influxes. Algal blooms are boosted by nitrate and phosphate influxes from farming and human wastes, and jellyfish benefit from the reduction of natural predators such as loggerhead turtles and the bluefin tuna, which have been drastically reduced by over-fishing. Once jellyfish are predominant, it can difficult for juvenile fish populations to re-establish the prior predator-prey relationship. Reduced river flows during hotter summers might also lead to increased numbers of jellyfish near the shore, as freshwater currents no longer keep the jellyfish offshore. The predominance of jellyfish and algal blooms in coastal waters and adjacent to beaches also reduces the attractiveness of tourism for those beaches. <br />
<br />
Enclosed shallow seas like the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are vulnerable to warming and other climate changes. On a longer term basis, ecosystems shifts such as jellyfish and algal could also be perceived as an indication that the Mediterranean Sea and region is under stress, and that the sea is becoming "tropicalised". The Mediterranean climate, typified by cool wet winters and dry hot summers, may be shifting with related impacts on terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems and biodiversity, and the economies and communities they support. <br />
<br />
In complex ways, climate change affects the ecological or carrying capacity of these natural ecosystems. In order to allow these coastal and marine ecosystems to adapt to the climate changes that will occur, human stresses, including those caused by all these developments, may need to be reduced. Among other matters, this requires an integrative and ongoing ecosystem based approach to the planning of these developments. Separate from these economic and conservation needs, coastal and marine ecosystems meet many needs for local communities such as food, transport, recreation, as well as providing cultural and historical links.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Water uses and alterations in quality and quantity==<br />
<br />
Water uses, and alterations in water quality and quantity, may be complemented and aggravated by seasonal shifts and changes in temperature and precipitation due to climate change. Many water uses in coastal communities in the Mediterranean are unsustainable. These water uses may reduce river flows and drain existing ground water aquifers. Climate change may further reduce these river flows, and impede the replenishment of these aquifers, even if more sustainable withdrawals are attempted. Additionally, salt water intrusion of these aquifers and estuaries will become an increasing risk as the sea level rises. This risk of saltwater intrusion is particularly great for groundwater aquifers on islands and coasts where aquifers are already depleted.<br />
<br />
Availability of water is already an issue in some destinations in the Mediterranean. Water is already imported to some islands, while desalination is a water source for some of the Canarias Islands, located in the south Atlantic off the coast of western Africa. In parts of the Algarve region of Portugal, nsustainable water uses and varying seasonal and annual precipitation, are combined with extensive coastal developments and roads, which varies the drainage and water retention patterns. In the future, climate change may result in higher summer temperatures and less and changing precipitation patterns, so existing water shortages may increase.<br />
<br />
Alterations in water quality due to pollution, nutrient flows, and the disposal of storm water and sewage and other urban wastes- particularly in estuaries, bays and shallow enclosed seas- may be augmented by climate change and changing sea surface temperature, stratification, precipitation, and circulatory patterns. For example, much of the sewage and storm water from the larger settlements located on the Mediterranean Sea flows untreated or minimally treated into the sea. Additionally, nutrients and chemicals from agricultural production also enter rivers that enter the sea. For Adriatic Sea, this combination of inputs results in an eutrophic sea during parts of the year. Climate change, including increasing sea temperatures and stratification may increase the impact and extent of this eutrophication in the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, as well as other enclosed seas like the Baltic and Black Seas. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Drought, desertification and flooding==<br />
[[Image:Dangerous heat index.jpg|thumb|300px|This image represents intensification of dangerous heat stress in the 21st century. The color contours show the expected intensification of dangerous heat index days given accelerating increases in greenhouse gas concentrations. (Purdue University image/Diffenbaugh Laboratory)]]<br />
Climate change has resulted in increased forecasts of higher temperatures, as well as drought and desertification in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions. In the future, this could discourage tourism in the summer months, moving tourism more to other seasons or adjacent months. These regions are also vulnerable to changing seasonal and annual precipitation patterns, including more intense rainfall events and increased flooding.The projected temperature increases resulting from climate change are quite striking,and could be disproportionately felt in the summer season.<br />
<br />
Sustainable water uses will be relevant as temperatures increase. Greater temperatures, as well as greater energy efficiencies and carbon reductions, will need to be considered for the future design of the built environment. Energy uses may have to increase in the future in order to provide cooling during the hotter summer period. Unless this energy is locally sourced or inexpensive, the economic viability of these developments and communities could be affected. Sustainable developments could include energy efficiency and to generate and use renewable or low carbon energy sources.<br />
<br />
==Sea level rise, storm events and erosion==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Extreme hot events.jpg|thumb|300px|This image illustrates heat stress in the 21st century for two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. The top panel shows the expected intensification of the severity of extreme hot days given accelerating increases in greenhouse gas concentrations. The bottom panel shows the expected decrease in intensification associated with decelerated increases in greenhouse gas concentrations. (Purdue University image/Diffenbaugh Laboratory)]]<br />
Coasts, deltas, estuaries, lagoons, enclosed seas, and arctic coasts are vulnerable coastal systems that are affected by sea level rise, storm events and erosion. Some European examples are the enclosed seas of the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas. These vulnerable coastal ecosystems can be used as indicators of climate change, and to further understand approaches to and effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. For the coasts, infrastructure and development, sea level rise will continue as an issue well into the future. It is interesting to note the shared and high vulnerability of lagunas, estuaries, deltas and arctic coasts to sea level rise, as well as storm surges and other extreme weather events. <br />
<br />
Two examples of vulnerable coastal ecosystems are the Venice laguna and the central coastal region of Portugal. The Venice laguna, its infrastructure and its communities are very vulnerable to sea level rise and storm events, with natural and human-induced vulnerability augmented by climatic changes. Venice is not only threatened by high tides, but is sinking through subsidence, at the same time as the Adriatic Sea is rising. The surrounding marshes, which used to break the waves coming into the city, have gradually disappeared, and industrial development on the mainland has added to the increased subsidence and pollution. Venice and the laguna, of which the city is one integral part, are vulnerable to both extreme weather events and "normal" flooding, which now occurs up to 10 times in one year. <br />
<br />
Due to the subsidence of the laguna (human induced and geological), as well as overall subsidence in the Adriatic Sea, Venice and the laguna are also vulnerable to even a 10 centimetre increase in sea level, and will be dramatically affected by a large increase in sea level. The Moses project, which is comprised of 9 barriers, was approved in 2003, is now estimated to cost more than 5 billion euros, and is designed to rise from the seabed to block the inlets of the Venice laguna from the Adriatic Sea when high tides are forecast. One measure of the actual adaptive or preventative costs may be required to protect Venice and the overall laguna is the 5.2 billion euro projected cost of the MOSES project, which is a dike structure designed to be used to prevent tidal surges from entering the laguna. Given the sensitivity of Venice and the overall laguna to climate change, it could also be considered as a model and indicator for global impacts of climate change for lagunas and coasts.<br />
<br />
Coastal erosion is affected by extreme weather events, which can have major and catastrophic events on certain coasts. Some changes in sediment deposit may be amplified by climate change, such as loss of sediment in storm events. In addition to extreme weather events, coasts may be erode due to changes in sediment deposit and removal due to the construction of offshore structures and alterations of rivers through dams and diversions, and resulting changes in water flows and sediment deposition. Much of the change in these sediment deposits is due to changes in water flows and damning on upstream rivers and watersheds, the removal of natural coastal habitats such as wetlands, the construction of coastal structures and defenses, and the construction of offshore structures.<br />
<br />
The Atlantic coast in the central region of Portugal and settlements such as Aveiro and Figueira da Foz are very vulnerable to combination of climatic changes and coastal erosion, storm events, and changes in sediment deposit due to coastal dikes and groins and upstream dams. Due to its depth, and absence of replenishing sediment deposits, the Venice laguna can be impacted by shallow wave actions.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:Case Study: [http://copranet.projects.eucc-d.de/files/000168_EUROSION_Climate_Change_and_Coastal_and_Beach_Management_in_Europe.pdf Climate Change and European Coast and Beach Management], 2006, Completed by M.A.K.Muir for EU-funded Coastal Practise Network ([http://www.coastalpractice.net CoPraNet])<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorName=Muir, Magdalena}}<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:climate change]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Sea_and_Region,_including_Adriatic_Sea&diff=11948Mediterranean Sea and Region, including Adriatic Sea2007-10-02T11:49:28Z<p>Caitlin: /* Drought, desertification and flooding */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Mediterranean Sea and Region==<br />
<br />
The Mediterranean Sea is a largely enclosed sea, with high temperature and salinity, and decreasing fresh water due to dams and river diversions. Under the changing climate regime, sea surface temperatures and salinity will increase. Biodiversity, conservation, water quality, quantity and seasonal flows are significantly affected. The negative impacts of pollution and nutrient may increase. Depending on the local characteristics, erosion, sediment deposition, drought, desertification and flooding may intensify or shift. Coastal and beach tourism is also an important source of income in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions, and the ongoing economic viability of these regions and local communities may depend on the maintenance of the coastal and marine ecosystems that tourism activity and other activities such as fisheries depend upon. <br />
<br />
All these uses must be consider in the context of climate change. For examples, for the Mediterranean, complex interactions between overfishing and climate change could facilitate ecosystem shifts. An example is the presence of algal blooms and jellyfish in Mediterranean due to combination of higher water temperatures, overfishing and nutrient influxes. Algal blooms are boosted by nitrate and phosphate influxes from farming and human wastes, and jellyfish benefit from the reduction of natural predators such as loggerhead turtles and the bluefin tuna, which have been drastically reduced by over-fishing. Once jellyfish are predominant, it can difficult for juvenile fish populations to re-establish the prior predator-prey relationship. Reduced river flows during hotter summers might also lead to increased numbers of jellyfish near the shore, as freshwater currents no longer keep the jellyfish offshore. The predominance of jellyfish and algal blooms in coastal waters and adjacent to beaches also reduces the attractiveness of tourism for those beaches. <br />
<br />
Enclosed shallow seas like the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are vulnerable to warming and other climate changes. On a longer term basis, ecosystems shifts such as jellyfish and algal could also be perceived as an indication that the Mediterranean Sea and region is under stress, and that the sea is becoming "tropicalised". The Mediterranean climate, typified by cool wet winters and dry hot summers, may be shifting with related impacts on terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems and biodiversity, and the economies and communities they support. <br />
<br />
In complex ways, climate change affects the ecological or carrying capacity of these natural ecosystems. In order to allow these coastal and marine ecosystems to adapt to the climate changes that will occur, human stresses, including those caused by all these developments, may need to be reduced. Among other matters, this requires an integrative and ongoing ecosystem based approach to the planning of these developments. Separate from these economic and conservation needs, coastal and marine ecosystems meet many needs for local communities such as food, transport, recreation, as well as providing cultural and historical links.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Water uses and alterations in quality and quantity==<br />
<br />
Water uses, and alterations in water quality and quantity, may be complemented and aggravated by seasonal shifts and changes in temperature and precipitation due to climate change. Many water uses in coastal communities in the Mediterranean are unsustainable. These water uses may reduce river flows and drain existing ground water aquifers. Climate change may further reduce these river flows, and impede the replenishment of these aquifers, even if more sustainable withdrawals are attempted. Additionally, salt water intrusion of these aquifers and estuaries will become an increasing risk as the sea level rises. This risk of saltwater intrusion is particularly great for groundwater aquifers on islands and coasts where aquifers are already depleted.<br />
<br />
Availability of water is already an issue in some destinations in the Mediterranean. Water is already imported to some islands, while desalination is a water source for some of the Canarias Islands, located in the south Atlantic off the coast of western Africa. In parts of the Algarve region of Portugal, nsustainable water uses and varying seasonal and annual precipitation, are combined with extensive coastal developments and roads, which varies the drainage and water retention patterns. In the future, climate change may result in higher summer temperatures and less and changing precipitation patterns, so existing water shortages may increase.<br />
<br />
Alterations in water quality due to pollution, nutrient flows, and the disposal of storm water and sewage and other urban wastes- particularly in estuaries, bays and shallow enclosed seas- may be augmented by climate change and changing sea surface temperature, stratification, precipitation, and circulatory patterns. For example, much of the sewage and storm water from the larger settlements located on the Mediterranean Sea flows untreated or minimally treated into the sea. Additionally, nutrients and chemicals from agricultural production also enter rivers that enter the sea. For Adriatic Sea, this combination of inputs results in an eutrophic sea during parts of the year. Climate change, including increasing sea temperatures and stratification may increase the impact and extent of this eutrophication in the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, as well as other enclosed seas like the Baltic and Black Seas. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Drought, desertification and flooding==<br />
[[Image:Dangerous heat index.jpg|thumb|300px|This image represents intensification of dangerous heat stress in the 21st century. The color contours show the expected intensification of dangerous heat index days given accelerating increases in greenhouse gas concentrations. (Purdue University image/Diffenbaugh Laboratory)]]<br />
Climate change has resulted in increased forecasts of higher temperatures, as well as drought and desertification in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions. In the future, this could discourage tourism in the summer months, moving tourism more to other seasons or adjacent months. These regions are also vulnerable to changing seasonal and annual precipitation patterns, including more intense rainfall events and increased flooding.The projected temperature increases resulting from climate change are quite striking,and could be disproportionately felt in the summer season.<br />
<br />
Sustainable water uses will be relevant as temperatures increase. Greater temperatures, as well as greater energy efficiencies and carbon reductions, will need to be considered for the future design of the built environment. Energy uses may have to increase in the future in order to provide cooling during the hotter summer period. Unless this energy is locally sourced or inexpensive, the economic viability of these developments and communities could be affected. Sustainable developments could include energy efficiency and to generate and use renewable or low carbon energy sources.<br />
<br />
==Sea level rise, storm events and erosion==<br />
<br />
Coasts, deltas, estuaries, lagoons, enclosed seas, and arctic coasts are vulnerable coastal systems that are affected by sea level rise, storm events and erosion. Some European examples are the enclosed seas of the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas. These vulnerable coastal ecosystems can be used as indicators of climate change, and to further understand approaches to and effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. For the coasts, infrastructure and development, sea level rise will continue as an issue well into the future. It is interesting to note the shared and high vulnerability of lagunas, estuaries, deltas and arctic coasts to sea level rise, as well as storm surges and other extreme weather events. <br />
<br />
Two examples of vulnerable coastal ecosystems are the Venice laguna and the central coastal region of Portugal. The Venice laguna, its infrastructure and its communities are very vulnerable to sea level rise and storm events, with natural and human-induced vulnerability augmented by climatic changes. Venice is not only threatened by high tides, but is sinking through subsidence, at the same time as the Adriatic Sea is rising. The surrounding marshes, which used to break the waves coming into the city, have gradually disappeared, and industrial development on the mainland has added to the increased subsidence and pollution. Venice and the laguna, of which the city is one integral part, are vulnerable to both extreme weather events and "normal" flooding, which now occurs up to 10 times in one year. <br />
<br />
Due to the subsidence of the laguna (human induced and geological), as well as overall subsidence in the Adriatic Sea, Venice and the laguna are also vulnerable to even a 10 centimetre increase in sea level, and will be dramatically affected by a large increase in sea level. The Moses project, which is comprised of 9 barriers, was approved in 2003, is now estimated to cost more than 5 billion euros, and is designed to rise from the seabed to block the inlets of the Venice laguna from the Adriatic Sea when high tides are forecast. One measure of the actual adaptive or preventative costs may be required to protect Venice and the overall laguna is the 5.2 billion euro projected cost of the MOSES project, which is a dike structure designed to be used to prevent tidal surges from entering the laguna. Given the sensitivity of Venice and the overall laguna to climate change, it could also be considered as a model and indicator for global impacts of climate change for lagunas and coasts.<br />
<br />
Coastal erosion is affected by extreme weather events, which can have major and catastrophic events on certain coasts. Some changes in sediment deposit may be amplified by climate change, such as loss of sediment in storm events. In addition to extreme weather events, coasts may be erode due to changes in sediment deposit and removal due to the construction of offshore structures and alterations of rivers through dams and diversions, and resulting changes in water flows and sediment deposition. Much of the change in these sediment deposits is due to changes in water flows and damning on upstream rivers and watersheds, the removal of natural coastal habitats such as wetlands, the construction of coastal structures and defenses, and the construction of offshore structures.<br />
<br />
The Atlantic coast in the central region of Portugal and settlements such as Aveiro and Figueira da Foz are very vulnerable to combination of climatic changes and coastal erosion, storm events, and changes in sediment deposit due to coastal dikes and groins and upstream dams. Due to its depth, and absence of replenishing sediment deposits, the Venice laguna can be impacted by shallow wave actions.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:Case Study: [http://copranet.projects.eucc-d.de/files/000168_EUROSION_Climate_Change_and_Coastal_and_Beach_Management_in_Europe.pdf Climate Change and European Coast and Beach Management], 2006, Completed by M.A.K.Muir for EU-funded Coastal Practise Network ([http://www.coastalpractice.net CoPraNet])<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorName=Muir, Magdalena}}<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:climate change]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Sea_and_Region,_including_Adriatic_Sea&diff=11945Mediterranean Sea and Region, including Adriatic Sea2007-10-02T11:04:49Z<p>Caitlin: /* Drought, desertification and flooding */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Mediterranean Sea and Region==<br />
<br />
The Mediterranean Sea is a largely enclosed sea, with high temperature and salinity, and decreasing fresh water due to dams and river diversions. Under the changing climate regime, sea surface temperatures and salinity will increase. Biodiversity, conservation, water quality, quantity and seasonal flows are significantly affected. The negative impacts of pollution and nutrient may increase. Depending on the local characteristics, erosion, sediment deposition, drought, desertification and flooding may intensify or shift. Coastal and beach tourism is also an important source of income in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions, and the ongoing economic viability of these regions and local communities may depend on the maintenance of the coastal and marine ecosystems that tourism activity and other activities such as fisheries depend upon. <br />
<br />
All these uses must be consider in the context of climate change. For examples, for the Mediterranean, complex interactions between overfishing and climate change could facilitate ecosystem shifts. An example is the presence of algal blooms and jellyfish in Mediterranean due to combination of higher water temperatures, overfishing and nutrient influxes. Algal blooms are boosted by nitrate and phosphate influxes from farming and human wastes, and jellyfish benefit from the reduction of natural predators such as loggerhead turtles and the bluefin tuna, which have been drastically reduced by over-fishing. Once jellyfish are predominant, it can difficult for juvenile fish populations to re-establish the prior predator-prey relationship. Reduced river flows during hotter summers might also lead to increased numbers of jellyfish near the shore, as freshwater currents no longer keep the jellyfish offshore. The predominance of jellyfish and algal blooms in coastal waters and adjacent to beaches also reduces the attractiveness of tourism for those beaches. <br />
<br />
Enclosed shallow seas like the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are vulnerable to warming and other climate changes. On a longer term basis, ecosystems shifts such as jellyfish and algal could also be perceived as an indication that the Mediterranean Sea and region is under stress, and that the sea is becoming "tropicalised". The Mediterranean climate, typified by cool wet winters and dry hot summers, may be shifting with related impacts on terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems and biodiversity, and the economies and communities they support. <br />
<br />
In complex ways, climate change affects the ecological or carrying capacity of these natural ecosystems. In order to allow these coastal and marine ecosystems to adapt to the climate changes that will occur, human stresses, including those caused by all these developments, may need to be reduced. Among other matters, this requires an integrative and ongoing ecosystem based approach to the planning of these developments. Separate from these economic and conservation needs, coastal and marine ecosystems meet many needs for local communities such as food, transport, recreation, as well as providing cultural and historical links.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Water uses and alterations in quality and quantity==<br />
<br />
Water uses, and alterations in water quality and quantity, may be complemented and aggravated by seasonal shifts and changes in temperature and precipitation due to climate change. Many water uses in coastal communities in the Mediterranean are unsustainable. These water uses may reduce river flows and drain existing ground water aquifers. Climate change may further reduce these river flows, and impede the replenishment of these aquifers, even if more sustainable withdrawals are attempted. Additionally, salt water intrusion of these aquifers and estuaries will become an increasing risk as the sea level rises. This risk of saltwater intrusion is particularly great for groundwater aquifers on islands and coasts where aquifers are already depleted.<br />
<br />
Availability of water is already an issue in some destinations in the Mediterranean. Water is already imported to some islands, while desalination is a water source for some of the Canarias Islands, located in the south Atlantic off the coast of western Africa. In parts of the Algarve region of Portugal, nsustainable water uses and varying seasonal and annual precipitation, are combined with extensive coastal developments and roads, which varies the drainage and water retention patterns. In the future, climate change may result in higher summer temperatures and less and changing precipitation patterns, so existing water shortages may increase.<br />
<br />
Alterations in water quality due to pollution, nutrient flows, and the disposal of storm water and sewage and other urban wastes- particularly in estuaries, bays and shallow enclosed seas- may be augmented by climate change and changing sea surface temperature, stratification, precipitation, and circulatory patterns. For example, much of the sewage and storm water from the larger settlements located on the Mediterranean Sea flows untreated or minimally treated into the sea. Additionally, nutrients and chemicals from agricultural production also enter rivers that enter the sea. For Adriatic Sea, this combination of inputs results in an eutrophic sea during parts of the year. Climate change, including increasing sea temperatures and stratification may increase the impact and extent of this eutrophication in the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, as well as other enclosed seas like the Baltic and Black Seas. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Drought, desertification and flooding==<br />
<br />
Climate change has resulted in increased forecasts of higher temperatures, as well as drought and desertification in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions. In the future, this could discourage tourism in the summer months, moving tourism more to other seasons or adjacent months. These regions are also vulnerable to changing seasonal and annual precipitation patterns, including more intense rainfall events and increased flooding.The projected temperature increases resulting from climate change are quite striking,and could be disproportionately felt in the summer season.<br />
<br />
Sustainable water uses will be relevant as temperatures increase. Greater temperatures, as well as greater energy efficiencies and carbon reductions, will need to be considered for the future design of the built environment. Energy uses may have to increase in the future in order to provide cooling during the hotter summer period. Unless this energy is locally sourced or inexpensive, the economic viability of these developments and communities could be affected. Sustainable developments could include energy efficiency and to generate and use renewable or low carbon energy sources.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dangerous heat index.jpg|left|400px|Dangerous heat index.]]<br />
[[Image:Extreme hot events.jpg|right|400px|Extreme hot events.]]<br />
<br />
==Sea level rise, storm events and erosion==<br />
<br />
Coasts, deltas, estuaries, lagoons, enclosed seas, and arctic coasts are vulnerable coastal systems that are affected by sea level rise, storm events and erosion. Some European examples are the enclosed seas of the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas. These vulnerable coastal ecosystems can be used as indicators of climate change, and to further understand approaches to and effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. For the coasts, infrastructure and development, sea level rise will continue as an issue well into the future. It is interesting to note the shared and high vulnerability of lagunas, estuaries, deltas and arctic coasts to sea level rise, as well as storm surges and other extreme weather events. <br />
<br />
Two examples of vulnerable coastal ecosystems are the Venice laguna and the central coastal region of Portugal. The Venice laguna, its infrastructure and its communities are very vulnerable to sea level rise and storm events, with natural and human-induced vulnerability augmented by climatic changes. Venice is not only threatened by high tides, but is sinking through subsidence, at the same time as the Adriatic Sea is rising. The surrounding marshes, which used to break the waves coming into the city, have gradually disappeared, and industrial development on the mainland has added to the increased subsidence and pollution. Venice and the laguna, of which the city is one integral part, are vulnerable to both extreme weather events and "normal" flooding, which now occurs up to 10 times in one year. <br />
<br />
Due to the subsidence of the laguna (human induced and geological), as well as overall subsidence in the Adriatic Sea, Venice and the laguna are also vulnerable to even a 10 centimetre increase in sea level, and will be dramatically affected by a large increase in sea level. The Moses project, which is comprised of 9 barriers, was approved in 2003, is now estimated to cost more than 5 billion euros, and is designed to rise from the seabed to block the inlets of the Venice laguna from the Adriatic Sea when high tides are forecast. One measure of the actual adaptive or preventative costs may be required to protect Venice and the overall laguna is the 5.2 billion euro projected cost of the MOSES project, which is a dike structure designed to be used to prevent tidal surges from entering the laguna. Given the sensitivity of Venice and the overall laguna to climate change, it could also be considered as a model and indicator for global impacts of climate change for lagunas and coasts.<br />
<br />
Coastal erosion is affected by extreme weather events, which can have major and catastrophic events on certain coasts. Some changes in sediment deposit may be amplified by climate change, such as loss of sediment in storm events. In addition to extreme weather events, coasts may be erode due to changes in sediment deposit and removal due to the construction of offshore structures and alterations of rivers through dams and diversions, and resulting changes in water flows and sediment deposition. Much of the change in these sediment deposits is due to changes in water flows and damning on upstream rivers and watersheds, the removal of natural coastal habitats such as wetlands, the construction of coastal structures and defenses, and the construction of offshore structures.<br />
<br />
The Atlantic coast in the central region of Portugal and settlements such as Aveiro and Figueira da Foz are very vulnerable to combination of climatic changes and coastal erosion, storm events, and changes in sediment deposit due to coastal dikes and groins and upstream dams. Due to its depth, and absence of replenishing sediment deposits, the Venice laguna can be impacted by shallow wave actions.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:Case Study: [http://copranet.projects.eucc-d.de/files/000168_EUROSION_Climate_Change_and_Coastal_and_Beach_Management_in_Europe.pdf Climate Change and European Coast and Beach Management], 2006, Completed by M.A.K.Muir for EU-funded Coastal Practise Network ([http://www.coastalpractice.net CoPraNet])<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorName=Muir, Magdalena}}<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:climate change]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dangerous_heat_index.jpg&diff=11944File:Dangerous heat index.jpg2007-10-02T11:02:56Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Extreme_hot_events.jpg&diff=11943File:Extreme hot events.jpg2007-10-02T11:02:12Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Sea_and_Region,_including_Adriatic_Sea&diff=11942Mediterranean Sea and Region, including Adriatic Sea2007-10-02T10:59:07Z<p>Caitlin: /* Drought, desertification and flooding */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Mediterranean Sea and Region==<br />
<br />
The Mediterranean Sea is a largely enclosed sea, with high temperature and salinity, and decreasing fresh water due to dams and river diversions. Under the changing climate regime, sea surface temperatures and salinity will increase. Biodiversity, conservation, water quality, quantity and seasonal flows are significantly affected. The negative impacts of pollution and nutrient may increase. Depending on the local characteristics, erosion, sediment deposition, drought, desertification and flooding may intensify or shift. Coastal and beach tourism is also an important source of income in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions, and the ongoing economic viability of these regions and local communities may depend on the maintenance of the coastal and marine ecosystems that tourism activity and other activities such as fisheries depend upon. <br />
<br />
All these uses must be consider in the context of climate change. For examples, for the Mediterranean, complex interactions between overfishing and climate change could facilitate ecosystem shifts. An example is the presence of algal blooms and jellyfish in Mediterranean due to combination of higher water temperatures, overfishing and nutrient influxes. Algal blooms are boosted by nitrate and phosphate influxes from farming and human wastes, and jellyfish benefit from the reduction of natural predators such as loggerhead turtles and the bluefin tuna, which have been drastically reduced by over-fishing. Once jellyfish are predominant, it can difficult for juvenile fish populations to re-establish the prior predator-prey relationship. Reduced river flows during hotter summers might also lead to increased numbers of jellyfish near the shore, as freshwater currents no longer keep the jellyfish offshore. The predominance of jellyfish and algal blooms in coastal waters and adjacent to beaches also reduces the attractiveness of tourism for those beaches. <br />
<br />
Enclosed shallow seas like the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are vulnerable to warming and other climate changes. On a longer term basis, ecosystems shifts such as jellyfish and algal could also be perceived as an indication that the Mediterranean Sea and region is under stress, and that the sea is becoming "tropicalised". The Mediterranean climate, typified by cool wet winters and dry hot summers, may be shifting with related impacts on terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems and biodiversity, and the economies and communities they support. <br />
<br />
In complex ways, climate change affects the ecological or carrying capacity of these natural ecosystems. In order to allow these coastal and marine ecosystems to adapt to the climate changes that will occur, human stresses, including those caused by all these developments, may need to be reduced. Among other matters, this requires an integrative and ongoing ecosystem based approach to the planning of these developments. Separate from these economic and conservation needs, coastal and marine ecosystems meet many needs for local communities such as food, transport, recreation, as well as providing cultural and historical links.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Water uses and alterations in quality and quantity==<br />
<br />
Water uses, and alterations in water quality and quantity, may be complemented and aggravated by seasonal shifts and changes in temperature and precipitation due to climate change. Many water uses in coastal communities in the Mediterranean are unsustainable. These water uses may reduce river flows and drain existing ground water aquifers. Climate change may further reduce these river flows, and impede the replenishment of these aquifers, even if more sustainable withdrawals are attempted. Additionally, salt water intrusion of these aquifers and estuaries will become an increasing risk as the sea level rises. This risk of saltwater intrusion is particularly great for groundwater aquifers on islands and coasts where aquifers are already depleted.<br />
<br />
Availability of water is already an issue in some destinations in the Mediterranean. Water is already imported to some islands, while desalination is a water source for some of the Canarias Islands, located in the south Atlantic off the coast of western Africa. In parts of the Algarve region of Portugal, nsustainable water uses and varying seasonal and annual precipitation, are combined with extensive coastal developments and roads, which varies the drainage and water retention patterns. In the future, climate change may result in higher summer temperatures and less and changing precipitation patterns, so existing water shortages may increase.<br />
<br />
Alterations in water quality due to pollution, nutrient flows, and the disposal of storm water and sewage and other urban wastes- particularly in estuaries, bays and shallow enclosed seas- may be augmented by climate change and changing sea surface temperature, stratification, precipitation, and circulatory patterns. For example, much of the sewage and storm water from the larger settlements located on the Mediterranean Sea flows untreated or minimally treated into the sea. Additionally, nutrients and chemicals from agricultural production also enter rivers that enter the sea. For Adriatic Sea, this combination of inputs results in an eutrophic sea during parts of the year. Climate change, including increasing sea temperatures and stratification may increase the impact and extent of this eutrophication in the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, as well as other enclosed seas like the Baltic and Black Seas. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Drought, desertification and flooding==<br />
<br />
Climate change has resulted in increased forecasts of higher temperatures, as well as drought and desertification in the Mediterranean and south Atlantic regions. In the future, this could discourage tourism in the summer months, moving tourism more to other seasons or adjacent months. These regions are also vulnerable to changing seasonal and annual precipitation patterns, including more intense rainfall events and increased flooding.The projected temperature increases resulting from climate change are quite striking,and could be disproportionately felt in the summer season.<br />
<br />
Sustainable water uses will be relevant as temperatures increase. Greater temperatures, as well as greater energy efficiencies and carbon reductions, will need to be considered for the future design of the built environment. Energy uses may have to increase in the future in order to provide cooling during the hotter summer period. Unless this energy is locally sourced or inexpensive, the economic viability of these developments and communities could be affected. Sustainable developments could include energy efficiency and to generate and use renewable or low carbon energy sources.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dangerous heat index.jpg|right|Dangerous heat index.]]<br />
[[Image:Extreme hot events.jpg|right|Extreme hot events.]]<br />
<br />
==Sea level rise, storm events and erosion==<br />
<br />
Coasts, deltas, estuaries, lagoons, enclosed seas, and arctic coasts are vulnerable coastal systems that are affected by sea level rise, storm events and erosion. Some European examples are the enclosed seas of the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas. These vulnerable coastal ecosystems can be used as indicators of climate change, and to further understand approaches to and effectiveness of adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. For the coasts, infrastructure and development, sea level rise will continue as an issue well into the future. It is interesting to note the shared and high vulnerability of lagunas, estuaries, deltas and arctic coasts to sea level rise, as well as storm surges and other extreme weather events. <br />
<br />
Two examples of vulnerable coastal ecosystems are the Venice laguna and the central coastal region of Portugal. The Venice laguna, its infrastructure and its communities are very vulnerable to sea level rise and storm events, with natural and human-induced vulnerability augmented by climatic changes. Venice is not only threatened by high tides, but is sinking through subsidence, at the same time as the Adriatic Sea is rising. The surrounding marshes, which used to break the waves coming into the city, have gradually disappeared, and industrial development on the mainland has added to the increased subsidence and pollution. Venice and the laguna, of which the city is one integral part, are vulnerable to both extreme weather events and "normal" flooding, which now occurs up to 10 times in one year. <br />
<br />
Due to the subsidence of the laguna (human induced and geological), as well as overall subsidence in the Adriatic Sea, Venice and the laguna are also vulnerable to even a 10 centimetre increase in sea level, and will be dramatically affected by a large increase in sea level. The Moses project, which is comprised of 9 barriers, was approved in 2003, is now estimated to cost more than 5 billion euros, and is designed to rise from the seabed to block the inlets of the Venice laguna from the Adriatic Sea when high tides are forecast. One measure of the actual adaptive or preventative costs may be required to protect Venice and the overall laguna is the 5.2 billion euro projected cost of the MOSES project, which is a dike structure designed to be used to prevent tidal surges from entering the laguna. Given the sensitivity of Venice and the overall laguna to climate change, it could also be considered as a model and indicator for global impacts of climate change for lagunas and coasts.<br />
<br />
Coastal erosion is affected by extreme weather events, which can have major and catastrophic events on certain coasts. Some changes in sediment deposit may be amplified by climate change, such as loss of sediment in storm events. In addition to extreme weather events, coasts may be erode due to changes in sediment deposit and removal due to the construction of offshore structures and alterations of rivers through dams and diversions, and resulting changes in water flows and sediment deposition. Much of the change in these sediment deposits is due to changes in water flows and damning on upstream rivers and watersheds, the removal of natural coastal habitats such as wetlands, the construction of coastal structures and defenses, and the construction of offshore structures.<br />
<br />
The Atlantic coast in the central region of Portugal and settlements such as Aveiro and Figueira da Foz are very vulnerable to combination of climatic changes and coastal erosion, storm events, and changes in sediment deposit due to coastal dikes and groins and upstream dams. Due to its depth, and absence of replenishing sediment deposits, the Venice laguna can be impacted by shallow wave actions.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
:Case Study: [http://copranet.projects.eucc-d.de/files/000168_EUROSION_Climate_Change_and_Coastal_and_Beach_Management_in_Europe.pdf Climate Change and European Coast and Beach Management], 2006, Completed by M.A.K.Muir for EU-funded Coastal Practise Network ([http://www.coastalpractice.net CoPraNet])<br />
<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=12992<br />
|AuthorName=Muir, Magdalena}}<br />
[[Category:Theme 6]]<br />
[[Category:climate change]]</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecomorphology&diff=11936Ecomorphology2007-10-02T09:45:01Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Ecomorphology<br />
|definition= Ecomorphology is primarily concerned with analyses of the adaptiveness of morphological features and all dependent, correlated topics such as the comparisons of adaptations in different organisms, modifications of adaptive features due to competition and other causes, structure of ecological communities, diversity within taxa, etc,Bock, 1990<ref>Bock, W.J. 1990. From Biologische Anatomie to Ecomorphology. Neth. J. Zool. 40:. 254-277.</ref>.<br />
}}</div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Autotrophic&diff=10893Autotrophic2007-07-29T00:05:04Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Autotrophic organisms<br />
|definition= <br />
Autotrophic organisms are self-nourishing which are able to feed on simple inorganic substances and through fixation of light energy, build up more complex substances. They are mostly green plants.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Decomposition&diff=10892Decomposition2007-07-29T00:03:39Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Decomposition<br />
|definition= The breakdown of matter by bacteria and fungi, changing the chemical make-up and physical appearance of materials. Metabolic degradation of organic matter into simple organic and inorganic compounds, with consequent liberation of energy.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Heterotrophic&diff=10891Heterotrophic2007-07-29T00:02:20Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Heterotrophic<br />
|definition=Organisms deriving their nourishment from outside. They are chiefly animals, which ingest other organisms or organic matter.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Trophic_status&diff=10890Trophic status2007-07-29T00:01:01Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Trophic status<br />
|definition='Trophic' comes from Greek word for feeding. There are generally three classes distinguished: <br />
''Eutrophic'' (well-fed) means nutrient rich and is usually associated with high primary productivity and low oxygen levels; <br />
<br />
''Mesotrophic'' (medium) having intermediate levels of primary productivity; pertaining to water having intermediate levels of the minerals required by green plants; <br />
''Oligotrophic'' (little-fed), nutrient-poor except for oxygen, low primary productivity. The trophic status for any one wetland is a condition determinated by the surrounding catchment, landform and geology.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Nutrient_cycling&diff=10889Nutrient cycling2007-07-28T23:59:14Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Nutrient cycling<br />
|definition= Circulation or exchange of elements such as nitrogen and carbon between non-living and living portions of the environment.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Denitrification&diff=10888Denitrification2007-07-28T23:57:21Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Denitrification<br />
|definition=<br />
(1) The loss of nitrogen from soil by biological or chemical means. It is a gaseous loss, unrelated to loss by physical processes such as through leachates. (2) The breakdown of nitrates by bacteria living in the soil, resulting in the release of free nitrogen. This process takes place under anaerobic conditions, such as are found in water-logged soil, and it reduces soil fertility.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref> <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Sedimentation&diff=10887Sedimentation2007-07-28T23:56:41Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Sedimentation<br />
|definition= (1) General: deposition of material of varying size, both mineral and organic, away from its site of origin by the action of water, wind, gravity or ice;<br />
(2) Morphology: the process of transportation and deposition of particles onto the bottom of a body of water.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref> <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Denitrification&diff=10886Denitrification2007-07-28T23:54:44Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Denitrification<br />
|definition=<br />
1. The loss of nitrogen from soil by biological or chemical means. It is a gaseous loss, unrelated to loss by physical processes such as through leachates. <br />
<br />
<br />
2. The breakdown of nitrates by bacteria living in the soil, resulting in the release of free nitrogen. This process takes place under anaerobic conditions, such as are found in water-logged soil, and it reduces soil fertility.<ref>[http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm CoPraNet Glossary]</ref> <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlinhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Redfield_ratio&diff=10885Redfield ratio2007-07-28T23:48:30Z<p>Caitlin: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Definition|title=Redfield ratio<br />
|definition= The optimal N/P ratio for phytoplankton growth, known as the Redfield Ratio, is 16:1 (based on molecular concentrations). Large differences from 16 at low N/P ratios can be an indication for potential nitrogen limitation and at high N/P ratios, potential phosphorus limitation of the primary production of phytoplankton. The results is the potential altered biological state of the ecosystem, especially in the phytoplankton biomass, species composition and food web dynamics.<br />
<ref>[http://www2.dmu.dk/1_Viden/2_Miljoe-tilstand/3_vand/4_eutrophication/nutrient.asp Nutrients and Eutrophication in Danish Marine Waters: Nutrient concentrations, nutrient ratios and nutrient limitations]</ref> <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/></div>Caitlin