https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=JMVeiga&feedformat=atomCoastal Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T06:25:18ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=36453Plastic in the Ocean2011-02-07T12:18:49Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Ingestion */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
[[Image:Albatross Midway Chris Jordan.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Stomach content in albatross chick remains, Midway, 2009. Copyright: Chris Jordan]]<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=36452Plastic in the Ocean2011-02-07T12:18:26Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=36451Plastic in the Ocean2011-02-07T12:11:10Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
[[Image:Albatross Midway Chris Jordan.jpg|Management.gif]]<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albatross_Midway_Chris_Jordan.jpg&diff=36450File:Albatross Midway Chris Jordan.jpg2011-02-07T12:08:03Z<p>JMVeiga: Remains of albatross chick, showing its stomach contents.
Midway, 2009. Copyright Chris Jordan</p>
<hr />
<div>Remains of albatross chick, showing its stomach contents.<br />
Midway, 2009. Copyright Chris Jordan</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=36449Plastic in the Ocean2011-02-07T11:50:39Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=36448Plastic in the Ocean2011-02-07T11:48:50Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter can end up in the ocean through rivers]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32148Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-30T12:30:58Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter can end up in the ocean through rivers]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide is the main factor responsible for marine litter]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32147Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-30T12:26:35Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide is the main factor responsible for marine litter]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32146Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-30T12:23:13Z<p>JMVeiga: /* What is the dimension of the problem? */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per year <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32145Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-30T12:22:13Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Ingestion */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small plastic debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32115Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T14:19:13Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Alien Species Transport */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substrate can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32114Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T14:16:53Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Human Health */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substracet can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. [[Pollution and the food web|through the food web]]) be exposed.<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32113Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:54:15Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumulates along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substracet can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32112Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:52:19Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumeulate along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substracet can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32111Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:49:31Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
[[Image:Beach_litter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Marine debries often accumeulate along the shores]]Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substracet can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32110Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:41:57Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>).<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Any floating or drifting material that may serve as substracet can be a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beach_litter.jpg&diff=32108File:Beach litter.jpg2009-07-29T13:33:20Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32106Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:27:52Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=====Aesthetics=====<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
=====Habitat Damage=====<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
=====Wildlife Entanglement=====<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
=====Ingestion=====<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death.<br />
<br />
=====Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard=====<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
=====Alien Species Transport=====<br />
Marine debris may serve as a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
=====Ghostfishing=====<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
<br />
=====Economic Impact=====<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
=====Human Health=====<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32103Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T13:17:27Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] is found in all seas areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Where does it come from? ==<br />
<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Impacts ==<br />
<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
Aesthetics<br />
Marine debris is an eyesore along shorelines around the world. It degrades the beauty of the coastal environment and in many cases may cause economic loss if an area is a popular tourist destination. <br />
<br />
Habitat Damage<br />
Marine debris can scour, break, smother, and otherwise damage important marine habitat, such as coral reefs. Many of these habitats serve as the basis of marine ecosystems and thus they are critical to the survival of many other species. <br />
<br />
Wildlife Entanglement<br />
One of the most notable types of impacts from marine debris is wildlife entanglement. Numerous marine animals become entangled in marine debris each year. Entanglement can lead to injury, illness, suffocation, starvation, and death.<br />
<br />
Ingestion<br />
Many animals, such as sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals have been known to ingest marine debris, which they mistake for food. This may lead to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and even death.<br />
<br />
Vessel Damage/Navigational Hazard<br />
Marine debris can be difficult to see in the ocean and can also be quite large. Because of this it is a navigational hazard to vessels. Encounters with marine debris at sea can result in costly damage to a vessel such as a tangled propeller or clogged intake.<br />
<br />
<br />
Alien Species Transport<br />
Marine debris may serve as a potential vector or transport mechanism for non-native species. <br />
<br />
Ghostfishing<br />
Ghostfishing, mainly by derelict fishing gear (e.g. nets) is a problem in many areas around the world. This is when a derelict gear item continues to fish though lost or discarded. The scope of this particular impact to commercially important species and others is not well known.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Economic Impact<br />
<br />
The impacts of marine debris to our marine resources, tourism, vessels and navigation, ecosystems, and human health and safety are difficult to quantify, but they all have a cost. <br />
<br />
<br />
Human Health and Safety<br />
Plastics are synthesized material that can release or degrade into harmful substances to which humans can directly (e.g. through the water) or indirectly (e.g. through the food chain) be exposed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== What is the dimension of the problem? ==<br />
<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|centre|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32092Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T12:54:01Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% of the marine debris has its origin from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste or rivers.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
===Impacts on marine life=== <br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|centre|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32091Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T12:50:40Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|325px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]]<br />
===Impacts on marine life=== <br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
[[Image:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg|thumb|300px|centre|Pacific Convergence Zone: area of marine debris accumulation in the North Pacific Ocean (Source: NOAA)]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pacific_Convergence_Zone.jpg&diff=32090File:Pacific Convergence Zone.jpg2009-07-29T12:37:16Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32089Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T12:35:16Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|350px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:Turtle eating plastic.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Many marine animals ingest plastic debris which appears as food]]<br />
===Impacts on marine life=== <br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
[[Image:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Laysan albatross chick showing the content of its stomach]][[Image:Albatross_stomach.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Content of a laysan albatross showing undigestible debris]] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turtle_eating_plastic.jpg&diff=32088File:Turtle eating plastic.jpg2009-07-29T12:27:14Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laysan_albatross_open_belly.jpg&diff=32087File:Laysan albatross open belly.jpg2009-07-29T12:19:36Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albatross_stomach.jpg&diff=32085File:Albatross stomach.jpg2009-07-29T12:14:18Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32084Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T12:12:33Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Sea_of_plastic.jpg|thumb|350px|left|Plastic litter]]<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Extensive use of plastic worldwide]]<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plastic_bag_in_sea.jpg&diff=32083File:Plastic bag in sea.jpg2009-07-29T11:52:26Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sea_of_plastic.jpg&diff=32082File:Sea of plastic.jpg2009-07-29T11:45:45Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32081Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T11:11:45Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]]<ref>http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/info/patch.html</ref>, where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32075Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T10:44:55Z<p>JMVeiga: /* External Links */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]], where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
http://www.plasticsoup.org/en/<br />
<br />
Algalita Marine Research Foundation: http://www.algalita.org/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32072Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T10:24:10Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items<ref name="unepguide"/>. Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals<ref name="moore">Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum <ref name="unepguide"/>. <br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]], where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1 <ref name="moore"/>. <br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32071Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T10:21:34Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref name="unepguide">UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items.<ref>UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref> Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals (Ryan, 1990<ref>Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum.<ref>UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]], where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1.<ref>Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Plastic_in_the_Ocean&diff=32067Plastic in the Ocean2009-07-29T10:19:46Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
[[Marine debris|Marine debris]] are found in all sea areas of the world – not only in densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from any obvious sources. Marine litter originates from many sea-based and<br />
land-based sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the continuously growing quantity of the litter and debris disposed, is leading to a gradual, but dramatic increase in the quantities of marine litter in our oceans and world shores.<ref>UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The majority of marine debris is composed by or originated from plastic litter, such as plastic bags and containers, bottle caps, lost or abandonned fishing nets and lines, styrofoam or small plastic pellets.<br />
<br />
===Where does it come from?===<br />
Though 20% comes from ocean sources like derelict fishing gear or ocean dumping, 80% comes from land-based activities, through wind-blown landifll waste, for example.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Impacts on marine life===<br />
Lost and discarded fishing gear is a primary cause for environmental, economic and public safety<br />
concern, but plastics are far the most pervasive of marine litter items.<ref>UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref> Plastic in water appears as food to animals such as sea birds, marine turtles and cetaceans and their ingestion can cause intestinal blockage, malnutrition and poisoning. One study found that 82 of 144 bird species examined contained small debris in their stomachs, and in many species the incidence of ingestion exceeds 80% of the individuals (Ryan, 1990<ref>Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref>). On the other hand, animals can be caught, entangled and hurt by such debries which can lead to health problems or even death.<br />
<br />
<br />
===What is the dimension of the problem?===<br />
Estimates for the rate of litter accumulation in the world’s seas and oceans vary substantially. The highest estimates suggest accumulation rates as high as 7 billion tonnes per annum.<ref>UNEP/IOC Guidelines on survey and monitoring of marine litter, 2009.</ref><br />
The plastic dominates the marine debris not only due to its intensive production and extensive use in the last decades but also because it is not biodegradable. Therefore, it can remain in the oceans for a long time and travel long distances through marine currents, accumulating along the shores or converging ocean zones. A conspicuous example of the latter is found in the central North Pacific Ocean, known as the [[Pacific trash vortex|Pacific trash vortex]], where the pieces of plastic outweigh surface [[plankton|plankton]] by a factor of 6 to 1.<ref>Moore, C., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. & Weisberg, S., 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 1297–1300.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32066TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T10:17:36Z<p>JMVeiga: /* The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France) */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E. (1990). "Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions". Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F. (2001). "Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F. (1996). "Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France". Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W. (1994). "Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs". ''In'' Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32065TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T10:16:59Z<p>JMVeiga: /* The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France) */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E. (1990). "Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions". Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F. (2001). "Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W. (1994). "Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs". ''In'' Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32064TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T10:16:22Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Imposex in marine snails */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E. (1990). "Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions". Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W. (1994). "Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs". ''In'' Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32063TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T10:15:37Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E. (1990). "Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions". Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32062TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T10:15:02Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E. (1990). "Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions". Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32061TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:59:24Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Imposex in marine snails */</p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and [[TBT and intersex in periwinkles|intersex]] (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32060TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:57:35Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32059TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:51:14Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Why the need of antifoulings? */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32058TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:50:49Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32057TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:45:58Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') <ref>Barroso, C.M. (2001). Utilização do imposex na monitorização da poluição por TBT na costa portuguesa, dando especial relevo ao gastrópode Nassarius (Hinia) reticulatus (L.). Universidade de Aveiro. 215pp. </ref> ]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment <ref name="gibbs"/><br />
<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32056TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:44:40Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Effects in other species */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals <ref>Berge, J., Brevik, E., Bjorge, A., Folsvik, N.., Gabrielsen, G. & Wolkers, H. (2004). “Organotins in marine mammals and seabirds from Norwegian territory”. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6: 108-112. </ref> and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds <ref name="terlizzi"/>. It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas <ref>Tanabe, S., Prudente, M., Mizuno, T., Hasegawa, J., Iwata, H. & Miyazaki, N. (1998). “Butyltin contamination in marine mammals from North Pacific and Asian coastal waters”. Environmental Science & Technology, 32: 193-198. </ref>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') <ref>Barroso, C.M. (2001). Utilização do imposex na monitorização da poluição por TBT na costa portuguesa, dando especial relevo ao gastrópode Nassarius (Hinia) reticulatus (L.). Universidade de Aveiro. 215pp. </ref> ]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32055TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:38:47Z<p>JMVeiga: /* Imposex in marine snails */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') <ref name="gibbs">Gibbs, P. E. & Bryan, G. W., 1994. Biomonitoring of tributyltin (TBT) pollution using the imposex response of neogastropods molluscs. In Biomonitoring of Coastal Waters and Estuaries. Kramer, K.J. (Ed), 1994. CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, p: 205-226. </ref>. Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails <ref name="sousaetal">Sousa, A., Matsudaira, C., Takahashi, S., Tanabe, S. & Barroso, C. (2007). ”Integrative assessment of organotin contamination in a southern European estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, NW Portugal): Tracking temporal trends in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ban”. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1645-1653. </ref>. More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails<ref name="gibbs"/> - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals (Berge et al., 2004) and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds (Terlizzi et al., 2001). It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas (Tanabe et al., 1998).<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') (Barroso, 2001)]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32054TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:34:54Z<p>JMVeiga: /* The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France) */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating <ref name="terlizzi">Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Gianguzza, P., Faimali, M. & Boero F., 2001. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 11: 311-317. </ref>. Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle <ref>Ruiz, J. M., Bachelet, G., Caumette, P. & Donard, O. F., 1996. Three decades of tributyltin in the coastal environment with emphasis on Arcachon Bay, France. Environmental Pollution, 93: 195-203. </ref>. Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994). Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails (Sousa et al., 2007). More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994) - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals (Berge et al., 2004) and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds (Terlizzi et al., 2001). It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas (Tanabe et al., 1998).<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') (Barroso, 2001)]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32053TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:31:42Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls <ref>Callow, M. E. & Callow, J. A. (2002). “Marine biofouling: a sticky problem”. The Biologist, 49: 10-14. </ref>. More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide <ref name="omae"/>. The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port <ref>Batley, G. (1996). “The distribution and fate of tributyltin in the marine environment”. In Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant. de Mora, S. (ed). Cambridge University Press: London, U.K. p. 139-166. </ref>. <br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased <ref>Langston, W. J., Bryan, G. W., Burt, G. R. & Gibbs, P. E., 1990. Assessing the impact of tin and TBT in estuaries and coastal regions. Functional Ecology, 4: 433-443. </ref>. In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades <ref name="omae"/>.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating (Terlizzi et al., 2001). Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle (Ruiz et al., 1996). Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994). Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails (Sousa et al., 2007). More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994) - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals (Berge et al., 2004) and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds (Terlizzi et al., 2001). It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas (Tanabe et al., 1998).<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') (Barroso, 2001)]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32052TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:25:38Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species <ref>Almeida, E., Diamantino, T. & Sousa, O. (2007). ”Marine Paints: the particular case of antifouling paints”. Progress in Organic Coatings, 59: 2-20. </ref>. In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months <ref>Bray S. (2006). “Tributyltin pollution on a global scale. An overview of relevant and recent research: impacts and issues.” Langston, W.J. (Ed). </ref>. This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases <ref name="omae">Omae, I. (2003). “Organotin antifouling paints and their alternatives”. Applied Organometallic Chemistry.17: 81-105. </ref>. Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] <ref name="champ">Champ, M. (2000). “A review of organotin regulatory strategies, pending actions, related costs and benefits”. The Science of the Total Environment, 258: 21-71. </ref>.<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls (Callow & Callow, 2002). More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide (Omae, 2003). The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port (Batley, 1996).<br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased (Langston et al., 1990).<br />
In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades (Omae, 2003).<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating (Terlizzi et al., 2001). Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle (Ruiz et al., 1996). Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994). Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails (Sousa et al., 2007). More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994) - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals (Berge et al., 2004) and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds (Terlizzi et al., 2001). It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas (Tanabe et al., 1998).<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') (Barroso, 2001)]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeigahttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=TBT_and_Imposex&diff=32049TBT and Imposex2009-07-29T09:12:45Z<p>JMVeiga: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Revision}}<br />
This article describes the use of Tributyltin (TBT) in aquatic antifouling paints, its behaviour in the marine environment and one of its powerful negative effects in non-target species - the phenomenon of imposex in marine [[Gastropod|gastropods]] - which have led to the partial ban of this compound.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Tributyltin (TBT) is a biocide compound which integrates certain antifouling paints used on the hulls of vessels to prevent biological fouling - a phenomenon which has considerable economic costs and environmental risks. Although very efficient, TBT has been subject to restrictions due to its [[Ecotoxicity|toxic effects]] in non-target species, detected at the end of the 1970s. One of this harmful effects is imposex – the masculinisation of females of certain marine snails in response of the exposure to TBT concentration, in the magnitude of ng.l-1. So far this phenomenon has been described for over 150 species. The sensitiveness and high correlation between the intensity of this phenomenon and the environmental concentrations of TBT allow the use of certain [[Gastropod|gastropod]] species as indicators of the degree of contamination in coastal zones. Though the use of TBT has been forbidden in many countries for vessels smaller than 25 m, the contamination levels are still a concern, particularly close to areas of intense boating and associated activities, such as fishing and commercial ports, marinas and dry-docks.<br />
<br />
===Why the need of antifoulings?===<br />
<br />
====The Problem of Fouling in Vessels====<br />
Any submersed rigid structure can work as substrate and be colonized by several marine organisms. It is estimated that there are over 4000 marine fouling species (Almeida et al., 2007). In the case of vessels, the degree of fouling of the hull depends on the time of submersion, the time the vessel is immobilized or its speed, but mainly on the features of the marine environment. Without an antifouling protection, the fouling can reach 150 kg per square meter, in less than 6 months (Bray, 2006). This phenomenon leads to an increase in the weight of the vessel and the drag resistance of the hull surface, which directly affect the speed, manoverability and the fuel consumption (increasing up to 40%), leading to more frequent maintenance operations, higher costs and higher emissions of polluting gases (Omae, 2003). Additionally, the hulls can work as vectors of translocation of organisms from one place to another, increasing the risks of introducing non-native, [[invasive species]] (Champ, 2000).<br />
[[Image:Fouling_boat.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Fouling on the hull of a small boat]]<br />
<br />
====Antifouling methods and TBT====<br />
The problem of fouling in vessels was recognised since the beginning of navigation. The ancient Phoenicians and Carthaginians were thought to have used copper sheathing and the Greeks and Romans both used lead sheathing on their ships’ hulls (Callow & Callow, 2002). More recent methods included the use of paints containing organic compounds of lead, arsenic, mercury and halogens (''e.g.'' DDT) and copper oxide (Omae, 2003). The later is still widely used. <br />
The first antifouling paints using organic compounds of tin started appearing in the second half of the 20th century and quickly dominated the markets during the following decades. Even today, TBT is globaly considered as the most effective solution developed so far to prevent fouling.<br />
<br />
====Sources and behaviour of TBT in aquatic systems====<br />
Antifouling systems represent the biggest and direct source of this pollutant. <br />
A TBT-based paint can be composed up to 3% of tin and a large commercial vessel can release more than 200g of TBT to the aquatic environment in only 3 days of permanence in a port (Batley, 1996).<br />
Aditionally, dry-docks and boatyards can also be relevant sources of antifouling paints (and other pollutants), where old paint removal and repaint procedures take place. Most of the residues end up in the surrounding environment.<br />
<br />
When released into the water TBT can be degradated into less harmful forms by microrganisms and ultra-violet radiation. However, due to its high affinity to particles it will be easily transported to the sediments, where its concentration is typically higher than in the water. Here, organotin compounds are exceptionally stable and the concentration can remain high for a long time even after the sources have ceased (Langston et al., 1990).<br />
In the water, TBT can remain for a few days or months but in the sediments its half-life can extend for several months, years or even decades (Omae, 2003).<br />
<br />
[[Image:Boatyard antifouling.jpg|center|300px|Dry-docks and boatyards: Lack of proper containment during antifouling paint removal can result in deleterious substances being released into the aquatic environment.<br />
|frame]]<br />
<br />
===Effects in non-target species===<br />
<br />
====The case of the Bay of Arcachon (France)====<br />
During the period when TBT was being widely used as antifouling, the production of oisters in the Bay of Arcachon (France) almost collapsed. This coastal area is sumultaneasly a place of production of this shellfish and an area of intense recreative boating (Terlizzi et al., 2001). Although the knowledge of TBT was very limited at the time, the French Authorities restricted the use of the compound in antifouling paints in the region, in a rare example of precautionary principle (Ruiz et al., 1996). Later on, it became clear that TBT was responsible for the failures in the reproduction and abnormal shell development of the oisters.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Dog_whelk_nucella_lapillus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dog whelk ''Nucella lapillus'']]<br />
<br />
====Imposex in marine snails====<br />
Also in the beginning of the 70’s certain reproductive abnormalities in other molluscs were discovered, which were later proved to result from exposure to TBT. In certain species of [[Gastropod|gastropods]] with separate genders, the females presented a penis and/or vas deferens. The term “imposex” was given as “a superimposition of male features in females” and was first described in dog whelk (''Nucella lapillus'') (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994). Soon it was clear that this was a generalised phenomenon – not only all the populations of dog whelk analysed in southwest England were affected but worldwide the same phenomenon was reported and for different species of snails, particularly in areas of intense maritime traffic. So far, imposex and intersex (a similiar phenomenon) have been described in over 150 species of marine snails (Sousa et al., 2007). More developed stages of imposex can lead to the sterilization and premature death of the females, affecting the entire population. However, the most dramatic aspect of this [[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment|endocrine disruptor]] is the fact that TBT can act at extremely low concentrations: a few nanograms per litre is enough to trigger imposex in marine snails (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994) - the equivalent of 1 g of salt dissolved in a square pool of 100 m side and 100m depth! These are so low that they are almost undetectable.<br />
<br />
====Effects in other species====<br />
The knowledge of TBT, its toxicity and risks to non-target organisms, including humans, is still limited. However, studies suggest several harmful effects on the imune and neurological systems and embrios in mammals (Berge et al., 2004) and described toxicity to plankton, algaes, fish and marine birds (Terlizzi et al., 2001). It is known that top predators from marine [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] can [[Bioaccumulation|accumulate]] significant amounts of [[Pollutant|pollutents]]. TBT is not an exception and has been already detected in [[Cetacean|cetaceans]] and seals, sharks and tunas (Tanabe et al., 1998).<br />
<br />
[[Image:imposex satges.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schematic representation of the stages of imposex development in netted dog whelk (''Nassarius reticulatus'') (Barroso, 2001)]]<br />
<br />
===Monitoring of TBT contamination===<br />
<br />
====Imposex as an indicator of TBT contamination====<br />
Some species of snails have been used as bio-indicators to evaluate and compare the degree of TBT contamination in aquatic environments. They are suitable species since:<br />
*the stage of imposex reflects the amount of TBT present in the tissues of the organism and in the surrounding environment (Gibbs & Bryan, 1994)<br />
*the imposex is triggered by extremelly low concentrations – close to the level of detection of measuring instruments<br />
*marine snails can be very commun in certain habitats and have restricted mobility<br />
<br />
<br />
===Restrictions to TBT===<br />
Since 1988 the International Maritime Organization ([http://www.imo.org/ IMO]), through the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), has recognised the harmful effects of the antifouling systems, particularly TBT. In 1990 the MEPC recommended the IMO Member States to restrict the usage of TBT in boats smaller than 25m (as the recreation boating was considered to be the main direct input) and to establish maximum release rates for the antifouling paints. As the evidences of the negative impacts and toxicity of TBT increased, IMO adopted the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships with the intention to globally ban TBT, starting in 2008. The ratification of this proposal was slow and though the number of joining countries has increased, the goals haven't been met.<br />
France, in 1982, was the first country to forbid the use of TBT in boats smaller that 25m, followed by the UK in 1987. The rest of the EU gradually joined the action. Japan has banned the organic compounds of tin from antifouling paints in 1990 and has called for a global ban. Other countries such as Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand voluntarily followed the IMO recomendation. Most developed countries have adopted legislation restricting the use of TBT and alternative methods are being used and developed.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
===Internal Links===<br />
*[[TBT and intersex in periwinkles]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts]]<br />
*[[Endocrine disrupting compounds in the coastal environment]]<br />
*[[Pollution laws and regulations]]<br />
*[[Pollution indicators]]<br />
*[[Differentiation of major algal groups by optical absorption signatures]]<br />
<br />
===External Links===<br />
*[http://www.imo.org| International Maritime Organization] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
{{author <br />
|AuthorID=19207<br />
|AuthorFullName= Veiga, Joana M<br />
|AuthorName=Veiga, Joana M}}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]<br />
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]<br />
[[Category:Theme 9]]</div>JMVeiga