https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Marcin+Penk&feedformat=atomCoastal Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T05:26:05ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29746Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:18:12Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29745Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:17:46Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Polyketides */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_phytoplankton&diff=29744Functional metabolites in phytoplankton2009-05-07T14:16:51Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Allelopathy and functional metabolites in phytoplankton==<br />
<br />
Allelopathy is the study of chemical interactions among neighboring plants and the chemicals responsible for such interactions. The word allelopathy derives from two separate words: allelon which means "of each other", and pathos which means "to suffer". In the phytoplankton, the release of chemicals by microalgae that induce negative effects on growth of other microalgae has mainly been studied in toxin-producing species such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, dinoflagellates and flagellates, and has been suggested to influence phytoplankton competition, succession, and bloom formation or maintenance. The mode of action of allelochemicals can be quite diverse, and the chemical nature of these compounds is largely unknown. The most common effect is to cause cell lysis, blistering, or growth inhibition. The factors that affect allelochemical production have not been studied much, although nutrient limitation, pH, and temperature appear to have an effect. The evolutionary aspects of allelopathy remain largely unknown, but it has been suggested that the producers of allelochemicals should gain a competitive advantage over other phytoplankton. A recent line of research is highlighting the role of these compounds for cell-to-cell communication. This is the case for diatom unsaturated aldehydes, which are involved in a stress surveillance mechanism based on fluctuations in calcium and nitric oxide levels. When stress conditions during a bloom and cell lysis rates increase, aldehyde concentrations may exceed a certain threshold, and possibly function as a diffusible bloom-termination signal that triggers an active cell death. Diatom-derived aldehydes also have an allelopathic role, since they have been shown to affect growth and physiological performance of diatoms and other phytoplankton species. <br />
<br />
==Phytoplankton-zooplankton chemical interactions==<br />
<br />
Herbivory is very intense in the plankton. Copepods and other planktonic crustaceans are predominantly herbivorous, grazing on large quantities of phytoplankton cells. Herbivory is therefore an important pressure for the evolution of defensive compounds in marine phytoplankton, seaweeds and macroalgae, and for shaping prey- predator relationships in the pelagic environment. However, the organism has to pay a price for this ecological advantage since the chemical pathways that generate these metabolites are often complex and significant amounts of metabolic energy are expended to generate their production. This may be the case of constitutive metabolites that are always present within the cells as opposed to induced defenses that are only produced when the predator is present. In the case of diatoms, for example, some compounds (oxylipins) are not constitutively present in the cells but are only produced when the cell is damaged as would occur during grazing. Thus, the cost for the production of these metabolites is expected to be lower than for other microalgal toxins which are always present in the cell, such as the saxitoxins, gonytoxins and other chemically complex neurotoxic compounds produced by dinoflagellates. Diatom defense relies on primary metabolites such as storage lipids, which are transformed by lipase and lipoxygenase enzymes after wounding or ingestion. The cost of defense would therefore be negligible and the evolution of such defenses could thus be driven by the need for processes involved in primary metabolism together with the need for feeding pressure reduction. <br />
<br />
Due to the teratogenic nature of diatoms oxylipins, the mechanism of chemical defense in diatoms functions by reducing grazing effects of subsequent generations of copepods. Hence, these compounds differ from those that act as feeding deterrents, the purpose of which is not to intoxicate the predator but discourage further consumption, or those that lead to physical incapacitation such as paralysis and death of the predator. Feeding deterrence would not protect the individual ingested cells but the community as a whole and the defense compounds would not target the predator but its offspring. In the end, grazing pressure would be reduced allowing blooms to persist when grazing pressure would otherwise have caused them to crash.<br />
<br />
Another activated enzyme-cleavage mechanism of defense in the plankton is found in the bloom-forming coccolithophorid, Emiliana huxleyi, which produces dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) found in several marine phytoplankton species, seaweeds and some species of terrestrial and aquatic vascular plants. DMSP is cleaved by DMSP-lyase enzymes into the gas DMS and the feeding deterrent acrylate by protistan and zooplankton grazers. DMS released into sea water, and eventually into the atmosphere, can have profound effects on global climate processes. Seabirds such as petrels respond behaviorally to DMS and use the gas to track areas where phytoplankton and zooplankton accumulate. DMS and acrylate are also produced in another bloom-forming alga, the prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis globosa, which is thought to be a poor food source for a variety of zooplankton grazers. When copepods feed on P. globosa, this alga suppresses colony formation since individual cells are too small for the copepod to attack. However when ciliates attack this alga, it shifts to the colonial form which is too large to be grazed. <br />
<br />
Dinoflagellate toxins are also often assumed to act as chemical defenses against herbivory. Effects on predatory copepods range from severe physical incapacitation and death in some species to no apparent physiological effects in others. This variability indicates that some copepods are more resistant to these compounds and may have evolved counter-defenses and detoxification mechanisms. Some copepod species seem capable of concentrating toxins in their body tissues, as occurs in bivalve molluscs, and ingested toxins may then act as defenses to deter predation by fish and other zooplanktivorous consumers.<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_benthic_invertebrates&diff=29743Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates2009-05-07T14:14:44Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>There is ample evidence that chemical composition, concentration, flux, and hydrodynamic transport all have profound effects on chemically mediated ecological interactions. An example is the common usage of amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides as food cues. The production of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in certain microenvironments can locally elevate concentrations of compounds relative to surrounding habitats, creating stable chemical gradients. At spatial scales smaller than the tiniest turbulent eddies (roughly less than 1 mm), turbulent mixing is relatively unimportant and chemical transport is dominated by molecular diffusion and advection. It is likely that communication systems began with the evolution of specific meanings for pre-existing molecules. One class of molecules used in specific communication is peptides. Peptides are excellent signals in marine systems given their high solubility, short half lives due to rapid consumption by microbes, and correspondingly high signal to noise ratios. Information is specified by the sequence of amino acids, much as letters provide information within a word. The aproteinaceous barnacle settlement pheromone/kairomone, arthropodin, was the first peptidelike signal molecule reported in crustaceans. Arthropodin induces larval barnacles to temporarily attach to a surface, and then to permanently attach and metamorphose to the juvenile stage. Arthropodin functions as both an aggregation and a settlement pheromone. Small peptides with arginine or lysine at their carboxy termini induce ovigerous mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) to release and disperse brooded embryos and induce oyster (Crassostrea virginica) larvae to settle near conspecific adults. Moreover, in contrast to the more typical sigmoidshaped dose/response curve, chemical induction in these marine organisms occurs only within a very narrow range in concentration of a molecule, spanning less than one order of magnitude.<br />
<br />
Another well-known example of peptide-mediated signaling is found in the escape responses of the sea anemones Stomphia coccinea and S. didemon in reaction to contact with certain species of marine asteroids. Like other sea anemones, these organisms are sessile animals that respond to the presence of the tripeptide imbricatine released from the predator starfish Dermasterias imbricata by detachment and swimming behaviour. Another amazing example is provided by the avoidance reaction in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus induced by a steroid sulfate released from the starfish Plazaster borealis.<br />
<br />
Chemical signals are known to regulate the trophic relationships of corals. All species of reef-building corals have mutualistic symbioses with unicellular algae, called zooxanthellae, which live within the coral cells and are abundant in tissues exposed to sunlight. Although reef corals are uniquely versatile in their ability to procure nutrients and energy, they principally depend on the translocation of carbon from their algal symbionts to meet their energy demands. The release of translocated materials from the algae is controlled by chemical communication with the coral host. Specifically, the chemical signal that induces carbon release is a mixture of free amino acids unique to the tissues of corals and other cnidarian species.<br />
<br />
Considerable effort has been expended in identifying environmental signal molecules that induce marine larvae to settle and metamorphose. This research has met limited success because many of these morphogens are unstable, tightly complexed (adsorbed or bound) with other molecules, or present in only trace amounts. Neurotransmitters, such as gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) and dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), have been suggested to mimic the function of natural signal molecules, but the peripheral or central neural site (or sites) of action by these mimetics is still unclear. Remarkably few attempts have been made to characterize the structures of pheromones other than sperm attractants. Courtship and mating pheromones can be difficult to identify because breeding seasons are short and materials hard to obtain. Specific courtship behavioral acts are often troublesome to discriminate from other activities, thus making bioassays of active material impossible in some cases. Still, outstanding progress has been made towards elucidating the structures of mating pheromones in brown algae, and fishes. Whereas terpenes and other hydrocarbons appear to be the principal pheromones in worms and brown algae, steroid hormones and their metabolites produced by ovulating female fish are potent attractants to mature males in some species.<br />
<br />
Additionally, chemical defenses produced by prey organisms (animals, plant, and microbes) render their tissues unpalatable or toxic to consumers. Despite the crucial ecological importance of such molecules, underlying mechanisms are lacking for most processes that structure communities.<br />
<br />
Probably the most clear-cut examples of chemicals working as deterrent compounds in marine habitats are represented by molecules isolated in the molluscs of the sub-class Opisthobranchia. The opisthobranchs are marine slugs that are apparently unprotected, because the mechanical protection of their shell is either reduced or completely absent. However, chemical studies on these molluscs have accumulated evidence that they are well protected by chemical metabolites. These chemical weapons are obtained by bioaccumulation or biotransformation of dietary compounds or are synthesized de novo. In particular, current evolutionary theories suggest that opisthobranchs acquired through evolution the ability to produce de novo molecules present in their ancestral diet by horizontal genetic transmission, by a retro-synthetic mode or by a colossal gene loss. Since the first chemical study of the sea hare Aplysia kurodai in 1963, opisthobranchs have become the subjects of numerous studies on the defensive role of chemicals stored in their bodies. It seems that these organisms have elaborated very specialized and differentiated behaviours in order to optimize defense and reduce space competition. So, different genera of dorid nudibranchs are specialized predators of different sponges from which the molluscs obtain different chemicals that are committed to deter potential predators. Many opisthobranchs accumulate and concentrate the deterrent chemicals in outer structures of the body, more exposed to attack. Thus, the round-shaped vesicles displaced along the gills in many molluscs of the genus Hypselodoris contain pure forms of the defensive sesquiterpenes, and the coloured border of the mantle in Chromodoris is the source of deterrent diterpenes. Many other opisthobranchs compensate their physical vulnerability with chemical secretions. Opisthobranchs of the order Sacoglossa are one of the few groups of specialized herbivores in the marine environment. The presence of defense metabolites found in the secretion and mantle of these animals is due to the selective accumulation and in vivo chemical transformation of major metabolites acquired from the algae Caulerpales. A few sacoglossans also have the ability to “steal” and store chloroplasts (kleptoplasty) from algae. These molluscs have the unique ability to assimilate and maintain the photosynthetically active endosymbionts by synthesis of chloroplast proteins in the cytoplasmic ribosomes of the molluscs. These animals also biosythesize a rather uncommon class of polyketides that are suggested to serve as co-specific and intra-specific chemical signals; the same molecules also seem to act as physiological protectants against the deleterious effects of light in highly photophilic habitats.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_benthic_invertebrates&diff=29742Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates2009-05-07T14:14:22Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
There is ample evidence that chemical composition, concentration, flux, and hydrodynamic transport all have profound effects on chemically mediated ecological interactions. An example is the common usage of amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides as food cues. The production of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in certain microenvironments can locally elevate concentrations of compounds relative to surrounding habitats, creating stable chemical gradients. At spatial scales smaller than the tiniest turbulent eddies (roughly less than 1 mm), turbulent mixing is relatively unimportant and chemical transport is dominated by molecular diffusion and advection. It is likely that communication systems began with the evolution of specific meanings for pre-existing molecules. One class of molecules used in specific communication is peptides. Peptides are excellent signals in marine systems given their high solubility, short half lives due to rapid consumption by microbes, and correspondingly high signal to noise ratios. Information is specified by the sequence of amino acids, much as letters provide information within a word. The aproteinaceous barnacle settlement pheromone/kairomone, arthropodin, was the first peptidelike signal molecule reported in crustaceans. Arthropodin induces larval barnacles to temporarily attach to a surface, and then to permanently attach and metamorphose to the juvenile stage. Arthropodin functions as both an aggregation and a settlement pheromone. Small peptides with arginine or lysine at their carboxy termini induce ovigerous mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) to release and disperse brooded embryos and induce oyster (Crassostrea virginica) larvae to settle near conspecific adults. Moreover, in contrast to the more typical sigmoidshaped dose/response curve, chemical induction in these marine organisms occurs only within a very narrow range in concentration of a molecule, spanning less than one order of magnitude.<br />
<br />
Another well-known example of peptide-mediated signaling is found in the escape responses of the sea anemones Stomphia coccinea and S. didemon in reaction to contact with certain species of marine asteroids. Like other sea anemones, these organisms are sessile animals that respond to the presence of the tripeptide imbricatine released from the predator starfish Dermasterias imbricata by detachment and swimming behaviour. Another amazing example is provided by the avoidance reaction in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus induced by a steroid sulfate released from the starfish Plazaster borealis.<br />
Chemical signals are known to regulate the trophic relationships of corals. All species of reef-building corals have mutualistic symbioses with unicellular algae, called zooxanthellae, which live within the coral cells and are abundant in tissues exposed to sunlight. Although reef corals are uniquely versatile in their ability to procure nutrients and energy, they principally depend on the translocation of carbon from their algal symbionts to meet their energy demands. The release of translocated materials from the algae is controlled by chemical communication with the coral host. Specifically, the chemical signal that induces carbon release is a mixture of free amino acids unique to the tissues of corals and other cnidarian species.<br />
<br />
Considerable effort has been expended in identifying environmental signal molecules that induce marine larvae to settle and metamorphose. This research has met limited success because many of these morphogens are unstable, tightly complexed (adsorbed or bound) with other molecules, or present in only trace amounts. Neurotransmitters, such as gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) and dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), have been suggested to mimic the function of natural signal molecules, but the peripheral or central neural site (or sites) of action by these mimetics is still unclear. Remarkably few attempts have been made to characterize the structures of pheromones other than sperm attractants. Courtship and mating pheromones can be difficult to identify because breeding seasons are short and materials hard to obtain. Specific courtship behavioral acts are often troublesome to discriminate from other activities, thus making bioassays of active material impossible in some cases. Still, outstanding progress has been made towards elucidating the structures of mating pheromones in brown algae, and fishes. Whereas terpenes and other hydrocarbons appear to be the principal pheromones in worms and brown algae, steroid hormones and their metabolites produced by ovulating female fish are potent attractants to mature males in some species.<br />
<br />
Additionally, chemical defenses produced by prey organisms (animals, plant, and microbes) render their tissues unpalatable or toxic to consumers. Despite the crucial ecological importance of such molecules, underlying mechanisms are lacking for most processes that structure communities.<br />
<br />
Probably the most clear-cut examples of chemicals working as deterrent compounds in marine habitats are represented by molecules isolated in the molluscs of the sub-class Opisthobranchia. The opisthobranchs are marine slugs that are apparently unprotected, because the mechanical protection of their shell is either reduced or completely absent. However, chemical studies on these molluscs have accumulated evidence that they are well protected by chemical metabolites. These chemical weapons are obtained by bioaccumulation or biotransformation of dietary compounds or are synthesized de novo. In particular, current evolutionary theories suggest that opisthobranchs acquired through evolution the ability to produce de novo molecules present in their ancestral diet by horizontal genetic transmission, by a retro-synthetic mode or by a colossal gene loss. Since the first chemical study of the sea hare Aplysia kurodai in 1963, opisthobranchs have become the subjects of numerous studies on the defensive role of chemicals stored in their bodies. It seems that these organisms have elaborated very specialized and differentiated behaviours in order to optimize defense and reduce space competition. So, different genera of dorid nudibranchs are specialized predators of different sponges from which the molluscs obtain different chemicals that are committed to deter potential predators. Many opisthobranchs accumulate and concentrate the deterrent chemicals in outer structures of the body, more exposed to attack. Thus, the round-shaped vesicles displaced along the gills in many molluscs of the genus Hypselodoris contain pure forms of the defensive sesquiterpenes, and the coloured border of the mantle in Chromodoris is the source of deterrent diterpenes. Many other opisthobranchs compensate their physical vulnerability with chemical secretions. Opisthobranchs of the order Sacoglossa are one of the few groups of specialized herbivores in the marine environment. The presence of defense metabolites found in the secretion and mantle of these animals is due to the selective accumulation and in vivo chemical transformation of major metabolites acquired from the algae Caulerpales. A few sacoglossans also have the ability to “steal” and store chloroplasts (kleptoplasty) from algae. These molluscs have the unique ability to assimilate and maintain the photosynthetically active endosymbionts by synthesis of chloroplast proteins in the cytoplasmic ribosomes of the molluscs. These animals also biosythesize a rather uncommon class of polyketides that are suggested to serve as co-specific and intra-specific chemical signals; the same molecules also seem to act as physiological protectants against the deleterious effects of light in highly photophilic habitats.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_benthic_invertebrates&diff=29741Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates2009-05-07T14:13:52Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>There is ample evidence that chemical composition, concentration, flux, and hydrodynamic transport all have profound effects on chemically mediated ecological interactions. An example is the common usage of amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides as food cues. The production of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in certain microenvironments can locally elevate concentrations of compounds relative to surrounding habitats, creating stable chemical gradients. At spatial scales smaller than the tiniest turbulent eddies (roughly less than 1 mm), turbulent mixing is relatively unimportant and chemical transport is dominated by molecular diffusion and advection. It is likely that communication systems began with the evolution of specific meanings for pre-existing molecules. One class of molecules used in specific communication is peptides. Peptides are excellent signals in marine systems given their high solubility, short half lives due to rapid consumption by microbes, and correspondingly high signal to noise ratios. Information is specified by the sequence of amino acids, much as letters provide information within a word. The aproteinaceous barnacle settlement pheromone/kairomone, arthropodin, was the first peptidelike signal molecule reported in crustaceans. Arthropodin induces larval barnacles to temporarily attach to a surface, and then to permanently attach and metamorphose to the juvenile stage. Arthropodin functions as both an aggregation and a settlement pheromone. Small peptides with arginine or lysine at their carboxy termini induce ovigerous mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) to release and disperse brooded embryos and induce oyster (Crassostrea virginica) larvae to settle near conspecific adults. Moreover, in contrast to the more typical sigmoidshaped dose/response curve, chemical induction in these marine organisms occurs only within a very narrow range in concentration of a molecule, spanning less than one order of magnitude.<br />
<br />
Another well-known example of peptide-mediated signaling is found in the escape responses of the sea anemones Stomphia coccinea and S. didemon in reaction to contact with certain species of marine asteroids. Like other sea anemones, these organisms are sessile animals that respond to the presence of the tripeptide imbricatine released from the predator starfish Dermasterias imbricata by detachment and swimming behaviour. Another amazing example is provided by the avoidance reaction in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus induced by a steroid sulfate released from the starfish Plazaster borealis.<br />
Chemical signals are known to regulate the trophic relationships of corals. All species of reef-building corals have mutualistic symbioses with unicellular algae, called zooxanthellae, which live within the coral cells and are abundant in tissues exposed to sunlight. Although reef corals are uniquely versatile in their ability to procure nutrients and energy, they principally depend on the translocation of carbon from their algal symbionts to meet their energy demands. The release of translocated materials from the algae is controlled by chemical communication with the coral host. Specifically, the chemical signal that induces carbon release is a mixture of free amino acids unique to the tissues of corals and other cnidarian species.<br />
<br />
Considerable effort has been expended in identifying environmental signal molecules that induce marine larvae to settle and metamorphose. This research has met limited success because many of these morphogens are unstable, tightly complexed (adsorbed or bound) with other molecules, or present in only trace amounts. Neurotransmitters, such as gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) and dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), have been suggested to mimic the function of natural signal molecules, but the peripheral or central neural site (or sites) of action by these mimetics is still unclear. Remarkably few attempts have been made to characterize the structures of pheromones other than sperm attractants. Courtship and mating pheromones can be difficult to identify because breeding seasons are short and materials hard to obtain. Specific courtship behavioral acts are often troublesome to discriminate from other activities, thus making bioassays of active material impossible in some cases. Still, outstanding progress has been made towards elucidating the structures of mating pheromones in brown algae, and fishes. Whereas terpenes and other hydrocarbons appear to be the principal pheromones in worms and brown algae, steroid hormones and their metabolites produced by ovulating female fish are potent attractants to mature males in some species.<br />
<br />
Additionally, chemical defenses produced by prey organisms (animals, plant, and microbes) render their tissues unpalatable or toxic to consumers. Despite the crucial ecological importance of such molecules, underlying mechanisms are lacking for most processes that structure communities.<br />
<br />
Probably the most clear-cut examples of chemicals working as deterrent compounds in marine habitats are represented by molecules isolated in the molluscs of the sub-class Opisthobranchia. The opisthobranchs are marine slugs that are apparently unprotected, because the mechanical protection of their shell is either reduced or completely absent. However, chemical studies on these molluscs have accumulated evidence that they are well protected by chemical metabolites. These chemical weapons are obtained by bioaccumulation or biotransformation of dietary compounds or are synthesized de novo. In particular, current evolutionary theories suggest that opisthobranchs acquired through evolution the ability to produce de novo molecules present in their ancestral diet by horizontal genetic transmission, by a retro-synthetic mode or by a colossal gene loss. Since the first chemical study of the sea hare Aplysia kurodai in 1963, opisthobranchs have become the subjects of numerous studies on the defensive role of chemicals stored in their bodies. It seems that these organisms have elaborated very specialized and differentiated behaviours in order to optimize defense and reduce space competition. So, different genera of dorid nudibranchs are specialized predators of different sponges from which the molluscs obtain different chemicals that are committed to deter potential predators. Many opisthobranchs accumulate and concentrate the deterrent chemicals in outer structures of the body, more exposed to attack. Thus, the round-shaped vesicles displaced along the gills in many molluscs of the genus Hypselodoris contain pure forms of the defensive sesquiterpenes, and the coloured border of the mantle in Chromodoris is the source of deterrent diterpenes. Many other opisthobranchs compensate their physical vulnerability with chemical secretions. Opisthobranchs of the order Sacoglossa are one of the few groups of specialized herbivores in the marine environment. The presence of defense metabolites found in the secretion and mantle of these animals is due to the selective accumulation and in vivo chemical transformation of major metabolites acquired from the algae Caulerpales. A few sacoglossans also have the ability to “steal” and store chloroplasts (kleptoplasty) from algae. These molluscs have the unique ability to assimilate and maintain the photosynthetically active endosymbionts by synthesis of chloroplast proteins in the cytoplasmic ribosomes of the molluscs. These animals also biosythesize a rather uncommon class of polyketides that are suggested to serve as co-specific and intra-specific chemical signals; the same molecules also seem to act as physiological protectants against the deleterious effects of light in highly photophilic habitats.<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_and_macroalgal-herbivore_interactions&diff=29740Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions2009-05-07T14:12:07Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>Over 2400 secondary metabolites have been described from marine red, brown and green algae, the majority of which are produced by tropical algae. Although these compounds generally occur in low concentrations, some compounds such as the polyphenolics in brown algae can occur at concentrations as high as 15% of algal dry mass. The majority of macroalgal compounds are terpenoids, especially sesqui- and diterpenoids, acetogenins (acetate-derived compounds), amino acid derivates, and polyphenols. Apparent differences in the secondary chemistry of seaweeds and terrestrial plants include the relative scarcity of nitrogen containing algal metabolites and the higher proportion<br />
of halogenated compounds in seaweeds, probably reflecting relative differences in availability of nitrogen and halides such as bromine and chlorine in terrestrial versus marine systems.<br />
<br />
Many defensive functions for algal secondary metabolites have been reported including antimicrobial, antifouling, and antifeeding, the last of which has been most studied. An array of strategies to cope with herbivory have been described, including tolerance through compensatory growth, escape through spatial, temporal, or associational refuges, and structural, morphological, or chemical defenses (see reviews in McClintock and Baker 2001). Several of these strategies may be used simultaneously by seaweeds in order to reduce herbivory. A number of benthic herbivores are trophic specialists that consume one or a few algal species including those that are chemically defended, but in comparison with terrestrial ecosystems feeding specialization among marine herbivores is rare. Metabolites that are toxic for generalist herbivores may be selectively consumed by feeding specialists such as nudibranch molluscs that concentrate these metabolites and use them as defenses against their own enemies. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_phytoplankton&diff=29739Functional metabolites in phytoplankton2009-05-07T14:11:09Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_benthic_invertebrates&diff=29738Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates2009-05-07T14:10:41Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_and_macroalgal-herbivore_interactions&diff=29737Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions2009-05-07T14:10:06Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29736Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:08:21Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29735Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:07:03Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* =See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29734Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:06:31Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Identification of marine functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly.<br />
<br />
==See also=<br />
<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29733Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:05:47Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29732Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:05:02Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29731Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T14:04:09Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites|Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29730Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T14:02:12Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Functional Metabolites]]<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29729Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T13:58:34Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
==Isoprenoids==<br />
<br />
What makes isoprenoids, including terpenes and steroids, so unique is the incredible chemistry that nature uses to produce these compounds. The immense variety of terpenes identified to date, are derived largely from three biosynthetically related, yet simple-looking precursors (Figure 1). These precursors, GPP, FPP, and GGPP, are essentially polymers of two, three, or four isoprene groups (5-carbon alkene units) covalently tethered together and punctuated by a terminal diphosphate group. The magic begins when one starts to gaze at the amazing number of structural derivatives that can arise from each of these precursors and then considers how this diversity might arise by the action of a single biosynthetic step catalyzed by terpene synthases or terpene cyclases. The large majority of known terpenes derive from terrestrial sources, mainly plants and fungi. On the contrary, marine terpenes are scarcely studied and their systematic investigation started only two or three decades ago. In analogy with their terrestrial counterparts, the number and diversity of marine terpenes are steadily increasing, even if our knowledge of the biochemical processes underlying their synthesis is very limited. In fact, few enzymes (terpene cyclases) responsible for the cyclization of these molecules in marine organisms are known and, more in general, there are no molecular data on terpene assembly, except for a few biosynthetic studies on algae and marine invertebrates, and for some recent information deriving from the genome sequencing of two marine bacteria.<br />
<br />
==Polyketides==<br />
<br />
Polyketides are a large and structurally diverse class of natural products that includes many different compounds with valuable biological properties. These compounds are produced by many different organisms, from protists and bacteria to plants and fungi. Knowledge of polyketide biogenesis in marine systems is still limited and the metabolic pathways operating in marine organisms are inevitably discussed in relation to terrestrial processes, especially those occurring in bacteria and plants. Although the first experiment targeting marine polyketides dates back to 1979, the number of biosynthetic studies is insignificant in comparison to the large number of cyclic and linear structures isolated. In a few cases, these structures are restricted or highly specific of marine organisms. This is the case of polypropionates synthesized by some molluscs of the order Sacoglossa which show the uncommon ability to replace one or more acetate units by propionates. Alkylpyridines and other aromatic alkanoates, produced by a few sponges and molluscs, are another outstanding example of truly marine molecules of the polyketide family. In these compounds an aromatic starter, e.g. benzoic acid or pyridine, is apparently elongated by acetate units according to the progressive scheme of polyletide assembly.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aminoacids, peptides and nitrogen-containing compounds==<br />
<br />
New classes of nitrogen including compounds from marine organisms have been shown to possess powerful biotechnological potential, especially as drug candidates. Synthetic analogues of the C-nucleosides Spongouridine and Spongothymidine isolated from a Caribbean sponge have led later to the development of Cytosine Arabinoside, an anticancer compound. The Ecteinascidin-743 (ET743) originating from the Caribbean tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinate is the prototype of a family of isoquinoline alkaloids, e.g. jorumycin (from molluscs) and renieramycins (from sponges), emerging as novel antitumour drugs. ET743 has potent cytotoxic and antitumour activity and a potential new mechanism of action. A number of cyclic peptides, depsipeptides and linear peptides bearing uncommon amino acids have been reported from sponges, tunicates, molluscs and seaweeds. Many of these molecules show unique unprecedented structures in comparison with similar compounds from other sources; they are often cyclic or linear peptides containing unusual amino acids which are either rare in terrestrial and microbial systems or even totally novel, and also frequently containing uncommon condensation between amino acids. Cyclic and linear peptides discovered from marine animals have increased our knowledge about new potent cytotoxic, antimicrobial, ion-channel specific blockers, and many other properties with novel chemical structures associated to original mechanisms of pharmacological activity. Didemnins are a family of depsipeptides with antitumor, antiviral and immunosupressive activities primarily isolated from the Caribbean tunicate Trididemnum solidum, but later obtained from other species of the same genus. <br />
<br />
Cytotoxic cyclic peptides have also been found in molluscs. Dolastatins are a group of cyclic and linear peptides isolated from the marine mollusc Dolabella auricularia, with prominent cell growth suppressing activity. The conotoxins isolated from molluscs of the genus Conus take part in defence, prey capture and some other biotic interactions. The majority of these peptides consist of about 8–35 amino acids in length with specific actions on ion channels and membrane receptors of excitable cells. In addition, Conus venoms also contain a heterogeneous group of peptides that are disulfide poor (e.g. the conantokins), large polypeptides (>10 kDa) or small molecules such as the biologically active amines. Since venoms are used as a survival strategy by several different species it is not surprising that the components of these venoms might exert very specific and potent effects. For this same reason animal venoms are for scientists a source of interesting bioactive molecules commonly known as toxins. <br />
<br />
==Shikimate derivatives==<br />
<br />
The anabolic shikimic acid pathway has seven steps for the biosynthesis of many aromatic compounds in a broad range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and some protozoans. Shikimate-derived metabolites are not very common in marine organisms even if a few examples of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis have been reported in the literature. Among these the clathrins from the sponge Clathria sp., represent a plausible biosynthetic intermediate that provides an inferred link between marine sesquiterpene/benzenoids and mixed terpene/shikimate biosynthesis. <br />
Shikimate origin has been also suggested for the phenyl moiety of marine cyanobacterium metabolite barbamide. <br />
<br />
Animals are considered to lack this pathway as inferred by their dietary requirement for shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids such as anthranilate and folate. Recently, molecular evidence has established the horizontal transfer of ancestral genes of the shikimic acid pathway into the Nematostella genome from both bacterial and eukaryotic (dinoflagellate) donors. These results provide a complementary biogenesis of shikimate-related metabolites in marine Cnidaria as a “shared metabolic adaptation” between an invertebrate host and its microbial consorts. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Physical and chemical properies of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
The physical and chemical properties of habitats can determine the nature and success of ecological interactions. In terrestrial environments, for example, compounds with high vapor pressures (low molecular weights, hydrophobic) facilitate chemical transport in air. Because the requirement for gaseous volatility imposes strong constraints on molecular designs, the isolation and identification of signal molecules by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is often straightforward. By comparison, much less is understood about chemically mediated interactions in aquatic habitats. Aqueous solubility (imparted mainly by electronic charge or hydrophilicity), rather than gaseous volatility, may constrain the types of substances principally acting as waterborne chemical agents. Even insoluble compounds can provide effective chemical signals when suspended and transported by fluid flow in the water column. The identities of cues mediating habitat selection (including settlement by and metamorphosis of larvae), predator avoidance, mating, and social interactions in aquatic environments have thus far proven elusive except in a few isolated cases. Yet there are numerous outstanding examples of secondary metabolites serving multiple roles and regulating the behavioral or physiological responses of individuals at lower trophic levels. Transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels, these effects have profound consequences for the distribution and abundance of organisms.<br />
<br />
==Identification of marine functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Since the early 1980s, collaboration between chemists and ecologists has led to an increasing number of studies in which modern techniques of chemical isolation and identification are coupled with ecologically relevant laboratory and field experiments. Significant progress in identifying ecologically relevant molecules is being made for marine systems, particularly on secondary metabolites acting as chemical defenses. Most of these substances can be extracted from animals, plants, and microbes by organic solvents (such as methanol or dichloromethane). The compounds are separated by reverse phase or hydrophobic-interaction HPLC and gas chromatography before structures are identified by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and other spectroscopic methods. Because secondary metabolites are available in partially or fully purified forms, they provide outstanding tools for quantitative studies. Such methods are currently being used to investigate the synthesis, inducibility, and seasonal and geographical variability in chemical defenses. Also under study are mechanisms of detoxification and patterns of associations (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), including co-evolution between chemically defended and non-defended species. These results will undoubtedly expand on the current understanding of the direct consequences of chemically mediated interactions to provide more predictive insights about population regulation and community structure. Purifications of ecologically relevant molecules other than secondary metabolites (i.e. functional metabolites) are often more challenging, and thus advances are occurring more slowly. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29728Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T13:55:46Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Chemists typically classify these compounds according to their biogenetic origin in isoprenoids, polyketides, amino acids and peptides, shikimate derivatives and carbohydrates. Furthermore, there are many other classes of compounds derived by mixed biosynthesis arising from combinations of the above pathways. Over half of the metabolites described to date (56%) are derived from the isoprenoid pathway, with the remainder split mainly between the amino acid (20%) and polyketide (20%) pathways. Interestingly, the nucleic acid and carbohydrate pathways constitute only 1% of the metabolic pathways compared to the important role that these classes of compounds play in primary metabolism. <br />
<br />
The pathways leading to the synthesis of these compounds are often complex and significant quantities of metabolic energy may be expended to generate compounds that could otherwise have been directed to growth or reproduction. Hence it is believed that the cost for their production must be compensated for by an ecological (related to outer interactions) or physiological (related to inner processes) benefit to the producing organism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29727Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:54:17Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality. For further details see:<br />
<br />
*[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
*[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
*[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29726Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:53:51Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
For further details see:<br />
<br />
*[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
*[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
*[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29725Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:53:20Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
For further details see:<br />
<br />
*[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_benthic_invertebrates&diff=29724Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates2009-05-07T13:52:16Z<p>Marcin Penk: New page: ==References== <references/> {{author |AuthorID= |AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana |AuthorName=Adriana}}</p>
<hr />
<div>==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_and_macroalgal-herbivore_interactions&diff=29723Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions2009-05-07T13:52:13Z<p>Marcin Penk: New page: ==References== <references/> {{author |AuthorID= |AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana |AuthorName=Adriana}}</p>
<hr />
<div>==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_and_physical_properties_of_functional_metabolites&diff=29722Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites2009-05-07T13:52:10Z<p>Marcin Penk: New page: ==References== <references/> {{author |AuthorID= |AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana |AuthorName=Adriana}}</p>
<hr />
<div>==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29721Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T13:51:29Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties of functional metabolites|Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites and macroalgal-herbivore interactions|Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in benthic invertebrates|Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Macroalgal-herbivore_interactions&diff=29719Macroalgal-herbivore interactions2009-05-07T13:49:09Z<p>Marcin Penk: New page: ==References== <references/> {{author |AuthorID= |AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana |AuthorName=Adriana}}</p>
<hr />
<div>==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Functional_metabolites_in_phytoplankton&diff=29717Functional metabolites in phytoplankton2009-05-07T13:48:57Z<p>Marcin Penk: New page: ==References== <references/> {{author |AuthorID= |AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana |AuthorName=Adriana}}</p>
<hr />
<div>==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29716Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:48:24Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
For further details see:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical properties<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29715Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T13:47:56Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemical and physical properties]]<br />
**[[Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29714Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T13:46:39Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemistry and physical and chemical properties]]<br />
**[[Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Functional metabolites in phytoplankton|Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29713Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T13:39:10Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
**[[Chemistry and physical and chemical properties]]<br />
**[[Macroalgal-herbivore interactions]]<br />
**[[Benthic invertebrates]]<br />
**[[Phytoplankton]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29712Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:38:11Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
For further details see:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29711Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:37:13Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
For further details please see:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29710Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:36:01Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29709Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:35:50Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29708Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:35:08Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
<br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
For further reading please consult the MarBEF ROSEMEB webpage with the reference list of relevant publications in chemical ecology at:<br />
http://www.marbef.org/projects/rosemeb/results.php<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29707Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:34:30Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==Biotechnological potential of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
Most people are familiar with functional metabolites whether they know it or not. These are the compounds that give many of our foods wonderful aromas and tastes and many of our household cleaning agents their fresh scents. But these are just some of the obvious ways we have taken advantage of these compounds. Natural products (NPs) have extensively represented a source of biologically active molecules for the treatment of many diseases in their natural form or as a template for synthetic modification.<br />
Nowadays it is estimated that approximately 61% of the 877 small-molecule new chemical entities introduced as drugs worldwide during 1981-2002 can be traced to or were inspired by natural products. The more convenient sources of drug leads include natural products (6%), natural products derived (27%), synthetic compounds with natural product-derived pharmacophores (5%) and synthetic compounds designed on the basis of knowledge gained from natural products (natural product mimics, 23%). <br />
Within NPs, those derived by marine organisms (referred to as marine natural products, MNPs) represent a very promising and relatively unexplored family. The biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of its terrestrial counterpart so the oceans represent an enormous resource for new biologically active compounds (biodiversity = chemical diversity). In a recent NCI study, marine animals were 10x more likely to contain selective cytotoxicity activity than terrestrial plants, animals or microorganisms.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29706Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:32:43Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29705Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:32:11Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far can be found in the following sections:<br />
<br />
*Chemistry and physical and chemical properties<br />
<br />
*Macroalgal-herbivore interactions<br />
<br />
*Benthic invertebrates<br />
<br />
*Phytoplankton<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29704Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:30:57Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* Ecology of functional metabolites */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==Ecology of functional metabolites==<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Here we provide some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29703Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:30:32Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
=Ecology of functional metabolites=<br />
<br />
There are many theories as to why marine organisms produce compounds that are not involved in primary metabolism. Early theories suggested that these were chemical waste products or otherwise functionless metabolites of primary metabolism overflow and this is probably why the term secondary metabolites was coined since these compounds were not considered important for the producing organism. However such compounds are now considered of vital importance and a whole new discipline named chemical ecology is now devoted to the study of the biological and ecological function of these compounds. Since marine organisms are under intense competitive pressure for space, light, and nutrients, they have developed numerous and complex chemical defenses to ensure survival. Here we provide some examples of the types of chemical interactions that have been best studied so far. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Marine_Biodiversity/Content&diff=29702Portal:Marine Biodiversity/Content2009-05-07T13:24:14Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div><div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity|'''What is Marine Biodiversity?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Genetic diversity]]<br />
*[[Species diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem diversity]] <br />
*[[Functional diversity]] <br />
*[[Ecosystem functioning]]<br />
*[[Cultural and economic understanding of biodiversity]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
'''[[Evolution]]'''</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Evaluation of Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Measurements of biodiversity|Measurement]]<br />
*[[Sampling]]<br />
**[[Sampling tools]]<br />
*[[Number of marine species]]<br />
**[[Species lists]]<br />
**[[Biodiversity hotspots]] <br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Why is Marine biodiversity important|Why is Marine biodiversity important?]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Resilience and resistance]] <br />
*[[Disturbance prevention]] <br />
*[[Nutrient cycling]] <br />
*[[Gas and climate regulation]] <br />
*[[Bioremediation of waste]] <br />
*[[Biologically mediated habitat]] <br />
*[[Food provision]] <br />
*[[Raw materials, including ornamental resources|Raw materials]] <br />
*[[Leisure]] <br />
*[[Cultural values]] <br />
*[[Information service]] <br />
*[[Non-use value: bequest value and existence value|Non-use value]] <br />
*[[Option use value: future unknown and speculative benefits|Option use value]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Biodiversity in the European Seas|European marine biodiversity]]</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[European marine biodiversity sites]]<br />
*[[Geographic variation]]<br />
**[[Atlantic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Arctic Ocean]] <br />
**[[Baltic Sea]] <br />
**[[Mediterranean Sea]] <br />
**[[North Sea]] <br />
**[[Black Sea]]<br />
*[[Ecosystem variation]]<br />
**[[Ocean circulation]]<br />
**[[Coriolis effect]]<br />
**[[Salinity]]<br />
*[[Variation of valuation of biodiversity]]<br />
**[[Cultural value variation]]<br />
**[[Cultural and Economic understandings of biodiversity]] <br />
**[[Biological Valuation]]<br />
***[[Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity|Conservation and restoration of marine biodiversity involving biological valuation]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine habitats and ecosystems|Marine Ecosystems]]'''<br />
</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
*[[Rocky Shores]]<br />
*[[Sandy Shores]]<br />
**[[Meiofauna of Sandy Beaches]]<br />
**[[Sandy beaches as Biocatalytical Filters]]<br />
*[[Continental Shelf]]<br />
*[[Kelp forests]]<br />
*[[Open oceans]]<br />
**[[Marine Plankton]]<br />
*[[Deep Sea]]<br />
**[[Deep sea bottom]]<br />
**[[Review of Hadal Environments]]<br />
*[[Sea ice ecosystems]]<br />
*[[Coral reefs]]<br />
*[[Seagrass meadows]]<br />
*[[Mangroves]]<br />
*[[Salt marshes]]<br />
*[[Estuaries]]<br />
**[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Threats to Marine Biodiversity]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Over exploitation]] <br />
**[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Coastal pollution and impacts|Pollution]] <br />
**[[Eutrophication in coastal environments|Marine Eutrophication]]<br />
*[[Habitat destruction and fragmentation]] <br />
*[[Non-native species invasions]] <br />
*[[Effects of global climate change on European marine biodiversity|Climate change]]<br />
*[[Maritime Traffic]] <br />
*[[Species extinction]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Marine Biodiversity research]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Global Patterns]]<br />
**[[Ecological and latitudinal aspects]]<br />
*[[Biodiversity and Ecosystem function]]<br />
**[[A review of biodiversity-ecosystem function research]]<br />
*[[Species and Ecosystems]]<br />
**[[Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem]]<br />
**[[Diversity and classification of marine benthic algae]]<br />
*[[Genetic biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Functional Metabolites]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div> <br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="NavFrame"><br />
<div class="NavHead">'''[[Conservation]]'''</div><br />
<div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"><br />
<br />
*[[Conservation policy and legislation]]<br />
**[[EU Common Fisheries Policy]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|NATURA 2000]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Habitats Directive]]<br />
***[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|SAC]]<br />
**[[Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, NATURA 2000|Bird Directive]]<br />
***[[SPA]]<br />
**[[MPAs (Marine Protected Areas)]]<br />
**[[The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management)]]<br />
**[[EM (Ecosystem based Management)]]<br />
</div><br />
</div></div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29701Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:22:30Z<p>Marcin Penk: </p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
<br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29700Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:21:45Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29699Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:21:30Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Biodiversity in the European Seas]]<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29698Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:20:30Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Marine Biodiversity research]]<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29697Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:19:40Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Marine Biodiversity research]]</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29696Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:19:13Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Research, science and innovation in coastal management]]<br />
<br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=<br />
|AuthorFullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|AuthorName=Adriana}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Marine Biodiversity research]]</div>Marcin Penkhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Functional_Metabolites&diff=29695Marine Functional Metabolites2009-05-07T13:14:40Z<p>Marcin Penk: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Functional metabolites are biological molecules that have key physiological and behavioural functions that ensure the fitness and survival of an organism but that are not involved in primary metabolism such as proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic machinery of life. The term functional metabolite is new and used as an alternative to the more often-used term “secondary metabolite” that considers these compounds as causing long-term impairment but not immediate death of an organism, or as causing no effect at all. The difference with our definition is that these compounds are not secondary but always serve a function that is necessary for the well-being and survival of an organism. The term functional metabolite differs from “natural product” which generally intends compounds with biomedical potential leading to drug discovery, but is rarely used in the ecological context. Other often-used terms with a more ecological context are “infochemicals” or “semiochemicals” that are defined as compounds that convey information between individuals thereby evoking a physiological or behavioral response in the receiver. <br />
Whatever term used, metabolites of this nature generally represent only a tiny fraction of the total biomass of an organism compared to primary metabolites, and it is not always clear what the function of these compounds is and what advantages they offer to the producing organism. To date, more than 18,000 of these metabolites have been described from sponges, ascidians, soft corals, seaweeds, marine microbes and many other benthic and pelagic organisms, with more being discovered daily. Many of these compounds play fundamental roles as defences against predators, competitors and pathogens, and for the selection of mates and habitats. Without these compounds many key physiological processes would cease to exist, with catastrophic consequences on ecosystem functionality.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Research, science and innovation in coastal management]]<br />
<br />
{{authors<br />
|Author1FullName=Ianora, Adriana<br />
|Author1Name=Adriana<br />
|Author2FullName=Fontana, Angelo<br />
|Author2Name=Angelo}}</div>Marcin Penk