Difference between revisions of "Eutrophication"
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| − | + | ===Primary and Secondary Effects=== | |
| − | ===Phytoplankton=== | + | ====Phytoplankton==== |
Phytoplankton are at base of pelagic food webs in aquatic systems, have generation times from less that a few days, respond rapidly to nutrient concentration changes, and are often quantified in terms of: | Phytoplankton are at base of pelagic food webs in aquatic systems, have generation times from less that a few days, respond rapidly to nutrient concentration changes, and are often quantified in terms of: | ||
#Primary production | #Primary production | ||
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#Bloom frequency | #Bloom frequency | ||
| − | ===Submerged aquatic vegetation=== | + | ====Submerged aquatic vegetation==== |
Submerged aquatic venetation are affected by eutrophication through<ref name="HELCOM"/>: | Submerged aquatic venetation are affected by eutrophication through<ref name="HELCOM"/>: | ||
#Reduced light penetration and shadowing effects from phytoplankton can reduce the depth distribution, biomass, composition and species diversity; and | #Reduced light penetration and shadowing effects from phytoplankton can reduce the depth distribution, biomass, composition and species diversity; and | ||
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*Short-lived (annual) nuisance macroalgae are favoured by large nutrient inputs. | *Short-lived (annual) nuisance macroalgae are favoured by large nutrient inputs. | ||
| − | + | ====Oxygen depletion<ref name="HELCOM"/>==== | |
| − | ===Oxygen depletion<ref name="HELCOM"/>=== | ||
Oxygen depletion, or '''''“hypoxia”''''', is a common effect of eutrophication in bottom waters. This effect may be episodic, occuring annually (most common in summer/autumn), persistent, or periodic in the coastal zone. | Oxygen depletion, or '''''“hypoxia”''''', is a common effect of eutrophication in bottom waters. This effect may be episodic, occuring annually (most common in summer/autumn), persistent, or periodic in the coastal zone. | ||
*Lethally low oxygen concentrations depend on the species. Fish and crustaceans have higher oxygen requirements; other speices lower. | *Lethally low oxygen concentrations depend on the species. Fish and crustaceans have higher oxygen requirements; other speices lower. | ||
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*An example of the effect: Eelgrass responds to low oxygen concentrations, and dies off under these conditions (often in combination with high temperatures) | *An example of the effect: Eelgrass responds to low oxygen concentrations, and dies off under these conditions (often in combination with high temperatures) | ||
| − | + | ====Invertebrate benthic fauna<ref name="HELCOM"/>==== | |
| − | ===Invertebrate benthic fauna<ref name="HELCOM"/>=== | ||
Invertebrate benthic fauna can cope with oxygen depletion to varying degrees (days – month). If O<sub>2</sub> drops below zero and H<sub>2</sub>S is released all organisms killed immediately. Mobile benthic invertebrates in sediment move to surface when O<sub>2</sub> decreases - there are increased catches of fish and crustaceans during these times. It is difficult to predict when animals will return after eutrophication events. The area affected plays a factor: small areas are recolonised and re-established more quickly | Invertebrate benthic fauna can cope with oxygen depletion to varying degrees (days – month). If O<sub>2</sub> drops below zero and H<sub>2</sub>S is released all organisms killed immediately. Mobile benthic invertebrates in sediment move to surface when O<sub>2</sub> decreases - there are increased catches of fish and crustaceans during these times. It is difficult to predict when animals will return after eutrophication events. The area affected plays a factor: small areas are recolonised and re-established more quickly | ||
| − | + | ====Climate change==== | |
| − | ===Climate change=== | ||
*Seas are important in element cycling – carbon and nitrogen cycle; phosphorus and silicate cycle | *Seas are important in element cycling – carbon and nitrogen cycle; phosphorus and silicate cycle | ||
*Ocean still takes up more carbon than it releases – depositing some in sediments | *Ocean still takes up more carbon than it releases – depositing some in sediments | ||
Revision as of 13:28, 22 January 2007
Definition of Eutrophication:
The enrichment of water by nutrients, especially nitrogen and/or phosphorus and organic matter, causing an increased growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an unacceptable deviation in structure, function and stability of organisms present in the water and to the quality of water concerned, compared to reference conditions[1]
This is the common definition for Eutrophication, other definitions can be discussed in the article
|
Eutrophication is an important process involving enrichment of water by excess nutrients. It can cause serious problems in the coastal zone through disturbance of ecological balances and fisheries, and through interference with recreational activities and quality of life.
Contents
What is eutrophication about?
- It’s about increased productivity (conversion of light and carbon dioxide into living organic matter – a process being limited by nitrogen and/or phosphorus) and unacceptable ecological effects as algal blooms, oxygen depletion, kills of benthic animals and fish
- It’s caused by increased inputs of nutrients from point sources, activities in the upstream catchment (e.g. losses from agriculture) and atmospheric deposition.
What are we really talking about?
- Eutrophication
- “eu” = “well” or “good”
- “trope” = “nourishment”
But is “eutrophication” good?
- In general: NO … it is actually ”bad” …
- Too many nutrients in wrong places may cause problems and result in changes in structure, function and stability of the marine ecosystems
- Eutrophication is ”too much of a good thing”
Some definitions:
- Eutrophication
- An increase in the supply of organic matter[2]
- A condition in an aquatic ecosystem where high nutrient concentrations stimulate growth of algae which leads to imbalanced functioning of the system[3].
- Alternative proposal
- The enrichment of water by nutrients, especially nitrogen and/or phosphorus and organic matter, causing an increased growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an unacceptable deviation in structure, function and stability of organisms present in the water and to the quality of water concerned, compared to reference conditions[1]
Effects of Eutrophication
The different processes and effects of coastal eutrophication are well documented[4] [5] [6]. and it has been considered as one of the biggest threats to marinne ecosystem health for decades[7] [2] [8].
![Source: HELCOM, 2006 [9]](/wiki/File:Eutrophicationflow.jpg)
Effects of eutrophication on marine ecosystems are well known[9]:
- algal blooms resulting in green water
- reduced depth distribution of submerged aquatic vegetation
- increased growth of nuisance macroalgae
- increased sedimentation, increased oxygen consumption
- oxygen depletion in bottom water, and
- sometimes dead benthic animals and fish.
General effects
Major effects of eutrophication include structure and function changes in the entire marine ecosystem and a reduction in stability. The following are responses to increased nutrient inputs[9]:
- Corresponding increase in nutrient concentrations
- Change in ratio between dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus in the water: DIN:DIP ratio. Optimal is 16:1 – called the Redfield ratio. Significantly lower N/P ratio causes potential nitrogen limitation; while a higher N/P ratio leads to phosphorus limitation of phytoplankton primary production
Primary production is usually limited by availability of light and nutrients.
Nutrient enrichment increase phytoplankton primary production, which increases biomass, which decreases light penetration through water column. Light penetration is measured by Secchi depth - a decreased Secchi depth can reduce colonization depth of macroalgae and seagrasses.
Responses to nutrient enrichment (pelagic ecosystems) involve a gradual change towards[9]:
- Increased planktonic primary production compared to benthic production
- Dominance of microbial food webs over linear planktonic food chains
- Dominance of non-siliceous phytoplankton species over diatom species
- Dominance of gelatinous zooplankton (jellyfish) over crustacean zooplankton
Eutrophication issues[9] are often divided into three groups:
- Causative factors: inputs, elevated nutrient concentrations, Redfield ratio changes
- Direct effects: primary producers, namely phytoplankton and submerged aquatic vegetation
- Indirect effects (secondary effects): related to zooplankton, fish and ínvertebrate benthic fauna (animals living on seafloor).
Primary and Secondary Effects
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are at base of pelagic food webs in aquatic systems, have generation times from less that a few days, respond rapidly to nutrient concentration changes, and are often quantified in terms of:
- Primary production
- Biomass (chlorophyll-a concentration, or carbon biomass)
- Bloom frequency
Submerged aquatic vegetation
Submerged aquatic venetation are affected by eutrophication through[9]:
- Reduced light penetration and shadowing effects from phytoplankton can reduce the depth distribution, biomass, composition and species diversity; and
- increased growth of filamentous and short lived nuisance macroalgae at cost of long lived species lead to a change in structure of macroalgae community with reduced diversity
Additionally,
- Seagrass meadows and perennial macroalgae are important nursery areas for coastal fish populations.
- Short-lived (annual) nuisance macroalgae are favoured by large nutrient inputs.
Oxygen depletion[9]
Oxygen depletion, or “hypoxia”, is a common effect of eutrophication in bottom waters. This effect may be episodic, occuring annually (most common in summer/autumn), persistent, or periodic in the coastal zone.
- Lethally low oxygen concentrations depend on the species. Fish and crustaceans have higher oxygen requirements; other speices lower.
- Hypoxic and anoxic (no oxygen) conditions may results in formation and releast of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), which is lethal to organisms.
- Anoxic periods cause release of phophorus from sediments - dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP), and ammonium is released under hypoxic conditions. DIP and ammonium in water column can enhance algal blooms.
- The predicted effect of global warming is to increase hypoxia with increased temperature. A 4 degree temperature increase is projected to results in a doubling of hypoxia in some parts of North Sea.
- An example of the effect: Eelgrass responds to low oxygen concentrations, and dies off under these conditions (often in combination with high temperatures)
Invertebrate benthic fauna[9]
Invertebrate benthic fauna can cope with oxygen depletion to varying degrees (days – month). If O2 drops below zero and H2S is released all organisms killed immediately. Mobile benthic invertebrates in sediment move to surface when O2 decreases - there are increased catches of fish and crustaceans during these times. It is difficult to predict when animals will return after eutrophication events. The area affected plays a factor: small areas are recolonised and re-established more quickly
Climate change
- Seas are important in element cycling – carbon and nitrogen cycle; phosphorus and silicate cycle
- Ocean still takes up more carbon than it releases – depositing some in sediments
Solutions
Nutrient inputs must be reduced to levels that do not put at risk target values for mitigation of eutrophication. Integrated management strategies should enable characterization of all pressures on water bodies in order to develop a coherent approach to deal with the pressures in a cost effective manner[9].
European Coastal Areas
The main source of nitrogen to European coastal waters is agricultural runoff discharged into the sea via rivers, identified as originating from sources of ammonia evaporation in animal husbandry and partly from fossil fuel combustion in traffic, industry and households[10]. For phosphorus the major sources are treated and untreated discharges to the sea from households and industry as well as soil erosion[10].
Baltic Sea in focus
Eutrophication seriously affects the Baltic sea marine environment, resulting in algal blooms, reduced water clarity, oxygen reduction and death of bottom animals. The causes behind this are well known[9]: discharges, losses and emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus to the aquatic environment. Reductions of discharges from municipal wastewater treatment plants and industries have been in focus for many years as have losses and emissions of nitrogen compounds from agriculture and traffic.
Causes in Baltic Sea
Human-mediated nutrient enrichment[9] in the Baltic Sea can be caused by input of nutrients in form of:
- Direct inputs from point sources (sewage treatment plants, industries)
- Atmospheric deposition
- Riverine inputs (from activities in the catchment: eg point sources, agricultural losses, atmospheric deposition, natural background losses (natural erosion and leakage of nutrients from areas without much human activities) and stream, river and lake retention)
Waterborne: Agriculture forestry, scattered dwellings, municipanlities, industries, natural background losses.
Airborne: Nitrogen compounds emitted to atmosphere:
- Nitrogen oxides: road transportation, energy combustion, shipping
- Ammonia emissions: mostly from agriculture.
- Distant sources
The role of agriculture in nitrogen inputs: The main source of nitrogen inputs in Baltic Sea is agricultural discharge via rivers, deriving from:
- Soil cultivation
- Fertiliser use
- Use of manure
- Intensive and uncontrolled agriculture
Aspects of Eutrophication problem in the Baltic sea[9]
- excessive phytoplankton blooms are major problem – especially of blue-green algae
- summertime algal blooms in most parts of Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Riga, the Baltic Proper and south-western parts of Baltic Sea
- problems:
- bathing people can hardly see their feet
- blue-green algae potentially toxic to humans and animals
- large mats of drifting algae deposited along shores and decay
- increased phytoplankton abundance results in reduced water clarity and reduced light penetration through water column to sea floor
Baltic Sea Solutions
The following steps are suggested[11]
- Establish overall goals and target values
- Implement relevant measures directly linked to fulfillment of these overall goals and targets
- Carry out monitoring
- Conduct assessments
- Evaluate whether the goals and targets have been fulfilled or not
Main drivers:
- European Directives
- Decisions and recommendations adopted by HELCOM
- National action plans
EU Directives:
- EC Urban Waster Water Treatment Directive
- EC Nitrates Directive
- EU Water Framework Directive
- Marine Strategy Directive
See also
Wikipedia: Eutrophication article
External links
- Baltic Sea Parlimentary Conference
- BERNET: Baltic Eutrophication Regional Network
- BONUS for the future of the Baltic Sea
- European Environment Agency
- HELCOM
- HELCOM Indicator fact sheets: water exchange, winter nutrient concentrations, water clarity, algal blooms, chlorophyll-a concentrations, hydrography and oxygen in the deep basins
- MARE Research program on Baltic Sea environmental issues
- National Environment Research Institute (DK) Aquatic page
- Nutrients and Eutrophication in Danish Marine Waters
- OSPAR For the protection of the marine environment of the north-east Atlantic
- The Water Forecast
- WWF Baltic Ecoregion Programme
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Andersen, J. H., Schlüter, L. and Ærtebjerg, G. (2006) Coastal eutrophication: recent developments in definitions and implications for monitoring strategies. J. Plankton Res. 28(7): 621-628.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Nixon, S. W. (1995) Coastal marine eutrophication: a definition, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia, 41, 199–219.[ISI]
- ↑ HELCOM webpage, 2006 [1]
- ↑ Cloern, J. (2001) Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 210, 223–253.[ISI]
- ↑ Conley, D. J., Markager, S., Andersen, J. et al. (2002) Coastal eutrophication and the Danish National Aquatic Monitoring and Assessment Program. Estuaries, 25, 706–719.[Medline]
- ↑ Rönnberg, C. and Bonsdorff, E. (2004) Baltic Sea eutrophication: area-specific ecological consequences. Hydrobiologia, 514, 227–241.[CrossRef][ISI]
- ↑ Ryther and Dunstan, 1971
- ↑ Bachmann, R. W., Cloern, J. E., Heckey, R. E. et al. (eds) (2006) Eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems. Limnol. Oceanogr., 51 (1, part 2), 351–800.
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 HELCOM, (2006) Andersen, J (DHI) and Pawlak, J (MEC), Nutrients and Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea – Effects, Causes, Solutions. Baltic Sea Parliamentary Conference.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Ærtebjerg, G. et al., Eutrophication in Europe’s Coastal Waters. Topic Report No 7/2001. European Environment Agency. [2]
- ↑ HEL
Authorship 02/01/2007, Jesper Andersen (jha@dhigroup.dk), DHI Water Environment Health.
(Caitlin 09:31, 18 January 2007 (Romance Standard Time))
