Dynamics, threats and management of biogenic reefs

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UNDER CONSTRUCTION

PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS DRIVING NATURAL DYNAMICS & ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

In this section, the processes and mechanisms driving natural dynamics and ecosystem development of biogenic reefs are discussed for each group in turn: Sabellaria spinulosa, Sabellaria alveolata, Mytilus spp. and Modiolus modiolus.

Sabellaria spinulosa

Environmental Requirements

S.spinulosa is thought to require stable foundations on which to settle and establish a tube (Jackson, 1977[1]; Wood, 1999[2]; Chisholm and Kelley, 2001[3]) and is thus likely to favour substrata which include bedrock; boulders, cobbles, mixed substrata; and mixed sediment (Connor et al., 1997[4]). Although it is assumed that a firm substratum is required for colony establishment, it has been suggested that a reef can increase in extent without the need for hard substratum (Holt et al., 1997[5]). Many studies have reported extensive colonies in predominantly sandy areas (Warren and Sheldon, 1967[6]; Schäfer, 1972[7]; Warren, 1973[8]; Limpenny et al., 2010[9]). Recent observations from The Wash, England show that S. spinulosa had ‘seeded’ on shell fragments predominantly from blue or horse mussels (Ian Reach, Natural England, pers. comm.).

As S. spinulosa is a sedentary species, it relies on wave and current action to supply food and wash away waste products (Kirtley, 1992[10]). Strong water movement is required for food provisions, but is perhaps more important to raise sediment into suspension for tube building (Jones, 1999[11]). As a result, S. spinulosa colonies are typically located in areas of weak to moderately strong water flow (Jones et al., 2000[12]). It also appears to favour locations around the edges of sand banks or areas with sand waves (Foster‐Smith, 2001a[13]). S. spinulosa typically occurs subtidally in depths of a few meters to up to 40 m depth (Caspers, 1950[14]; George and Warwick, 1985; Connor et al., 1997[4]; Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]), but can occur in depths up to 600 m (Hartmann-Schröder, 1971). S. spinulosa occasionally occurs in the lower intertidal zone (Jessop and Stoutt, 2006[15]).

Reproduction and Development

The fecundity and recruitment of S. spinulosa is known to be variable (e.g. Linke, 1951[16]; Wilson, 1971[17]; Michaelis, 1978[18]; George and Warwick, 1985[19]). The family Sabellariidae are broadcast spawners, reproducing sexually, resulting in larvae that drift passively in the plankton (Schäfer, 1972[7]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]). The larvae can spend a few weeks to several months in the plankton (Wilson, 1929[21]) before seeking appropriate conditions for settlement (Wilson, 1968[22]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]). If conditions are unsuitable, the larvae are able to delay metamorphosis for several weeks. Physical factors alone have limited influence on settlement (Wilson, 1968[23]) and settlement and metamorphosis is strongly influenced by the tube cement of other sabellariids (Wilson, 1968[23]; 1970[24]; Eckelbarger, 1978[20]; Jensen, 1992[25]). This mechanism ensures settlement in a suitable habitat and promotes the development of large colonies.

Despite only a few studies investigating the rate at which S. spinulosa can extend their dwelling tubes (Hendrick, 2007[26]; Davies et al., 2009[27] being exceptions), it appears that sabellariid reefs develop quickly following successful settlement (Linke, 1951; Vorberg, 2000; Stewart et al., 2004; Braithwaite et al., 2006). Last et al. (2011) observed that tube extension rates are highly variable and that they could grow up to 6 mm a day for several days when provided with an adequate sediment supply.

Little is known about the longevity of S. spinulosa colonies, but sabellariids are expected to survive for 1-2 years (Kirtley, 1966; McCarthy, 2001; McCarthy et al., 2003), with some reports of longer life spans (Wilson, 1974; George and Warwick, 1985). It is likely that the age of an actual colony may greatly exceed the age of the oldest individuals. This is particularly likely as sabellariid larvae are stimulated to metamorphose by conspecific secretions, encouraging continuous succession of generations.

Sabellaria alveolata

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Mytilus spp.

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

Modiolus modiolus

Environmental Requirements

Reproduction and Development

VULNERABILITY & THREATS

GENERAL SUMMARY

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Modiolus modiolus

Mytilus spp.

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREAT

Sabellaria spinulosa

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Sabellaria alveolata

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Mytilus spp.

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

Modiolus modiolus

Physical threats
Chemical threats
Biological threats

KEY PROCESSES TO FOCUS ON FOR MAINTAINING ECOSYSTEMS INTEGRITY

CURRENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Sabellaria spinulosa

Sabellaria alveolata

Mytilus spp.

Modiolus modiolus

SEE ALSO

Theseus Official Deliverable 3.3-Natural habitats for coastal protection and relevant multi-stressor coastal risks. Report and European Scale overview.

REFERENCES

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  2. WOOD R., 1999. Reef Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 414. Availbale from: [1]
  3. CHISHOLM J.R.M., & KELLEY R., 2001. Worms start the reef-building process. Nature, 409: 152 153.
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  5. HOLT T., HARTNOLL R. & HAWKINS S., 1997. Sensitivity and vulnerability to man‐induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature Research Reports. No. 234. pp97.
  6. WARREN P.J., SHELDON R.W., 1967. Feeding and migration patterns of the Pink Shrimp Pandalus montagui, in the estuary of the River Crouch, England, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 24, 569-580.
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  13. FOSTER‐SMITH R.L., 2001a. Report of the field survey for the 2001 Sabellaria spinulosa project. A report for the Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee and English Nature. pp 45.
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  21. WILSON D.P., 1929. The larvae of the British Sabellarians. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 15: 221‐269.
  22. WILSON D.P., 1968.The settlement behavior of the larvae of Sabellaria alveolata. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 48: 387‐435.
  23. 23.0 23.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Wilson68
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  26. HENDRICK V. J., FOSTER‐SMITH R. L. & DAVIES A. J., 2011. Biogenic Reefs and the Marine Aggregate Industry. Marine ALSF Science Monograph Series No. 3. MEPF 10/P149. (Edited by R. C. NEWELL & J. MEASURES). 60pp. ISBN: 978 0 907545 46 0.
  27. DAVIES A.J., LAST K.S., ATTARD K., HENDRICK V.J., 2009. Maintaining turbidity and current flow in laboratory aquarium studies, a case study using Sabellaria spinulosa. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 370, 35-40.



The main authors of this article are Firth, Louise, Davies, Andrew, Hawkins, Stephan, Airoldi, Laura and Colangelo, Marina Antonia
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.