https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&feed=atom&action=historyEcological restoration of estuaries in North Western Europe - Revision history2024-03-29T09:43:17ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=80084&oldid=prevDronkers J at 12:03, 2 March 20232023-03-02T12:03:12Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Conservation</del>, rehabilitation and restoration of estuarine and coastal habitats]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Principles of conservation</ins>, rehabilitation and restoration of estuarine and coastal habitats]]</div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=79400&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:42, 8 October 20212021-10-08T10:42:48Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] within Europe are managed to protect features designated under EU directives, notably their habitats and species in order to build upon their conservation objectives. This approach is no different from that adopted in other countries, for example the US [[Clean Water Act]]. Ecological restoration requires to build these into an iterative environmental management system which treats the environment as an entity to be managed as a whole <ref name="Eliot 2010">Elliott M. & Ducrotoy J.-P. (2010). Management plans for four North Sea estuaries : the Elbe, the Weser, the Humber and the Scheldt. ECSA Bulletin, 55: 15-22.</ref>. This is why, on the long-term, the main objective of estuarine habitat restoration in Europe is to enable the gradual re-establishment of ecological functions, leading to the (re)installation of typical estuarine communities. This can be accomplished through increasing fluxes of water circulating in the estuary and re-establishing connections between the various aquatic components of ecosystems. Adopting such objectives means considering each estuary as a whole including peri-estuarine areas such as the flood plain, associated marshes and land claimed by humans essentially over the last 150 years.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] within Europe are managed to protect features designated under EU directives, notably their habitats and species in order to build upon their conservation objectives. This approach is no different from that adopted in other countries, for example the US [[Clean Water Act]]. Ecological <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Ecosystem </ins>restoration<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|restoration]] </ins>requires to build these into an iterative environmental management system which treats the environment as an entity to be managed as a whole <ref name="Eliot 2010">Elliott M. & Ducrotoy J.-P. (2010). Management plans for four North Sea estuaries : the Elbe, the Weser, the Humber and the Scheldt. ECSA Bulletin, 55: 15-22.</ref>. This is why, on the long-term, the main objective of estuarine habitat restoration in Europe is to enable the gradual re-establishment of ecological functions, leading to the (re)installation of typical estuarine communities. This can be accomplished through increasing fluxes of water circulating in the estuary and re-establishing connections between the various aquatic components of ecosystems. Adopting such objectives means considering each estuary as a whole including peri-estuarine areas such as the flood plain, associated marshes and land claimed by humans essentially over the last 150 years.</div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=79157&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:02, 7 August 20212021-08-07T10:02:44Z<p></p>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78635&oldid=prevDronkers J at 11:23, 4 February 20212021-02-04T11:23:08Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Ecological stability of estuaries ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Ecological stability of estuaries ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes in their morphology over a centenary and a half, North-West European estuaries are still productive [[Marine habitats and ecosystems|marine ecosystems]]. In all of them, [[Marine Biodiversity |biodiversity]] reflects their ecological value, not necessarily in terms of species richness, but in terms of diversity of habitats and biotopes <ref name="Ducrotoy 2010a">Ducrotoy JP (2010) La restauration écologique des estuaires. Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 196.</ref>. Biotopes constitute sub-units of ecosystems and are displayed as a mosaic in each [[estuary]] <ref name="Olenin2006">Olenin S, Ducrotoy JP (2006) The concept of biotope in marine ecology and coastal management. Mar Pollut Bull 53: 20–29.</ref> . They seem to be similar in all estuaries but what makes each estuary special is the physical, chemical and biological (biogeochemical) links between the biotopes. These interrelations depend upon hydrology, sediment transport, [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Continental </del>Nutrient <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Sources and Nutrient Transformation</del>|nutrient transfer]] and biological cycles. Naturally, other variations between estuaries exist. The main structuring environmental factors appear to be [[salinity]], water movements and [[turbidity]]. They affect the heterogeneity (or structure) of each ecosystem, as well as their complexity (in terms of relations between structural attributes).  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes in their morphology over a centenary and a half, North-West European estuaries are still productive [[Marine habitats and ecosystems|marine ecosystems]]. In all of them, [[Marine Biodiversity |biodiversity]] reflects their ecological value, not necessarily in terms of species richness, but in terms of diversity of habitats and biotopes <ref name="Ducrotoy 2010a">Ducrotoy JP (2010) La restauration écologique des estuaires. Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 196.</ref>. Biotopes constitute sub-units of ecosystems and are displayed as a mosaic in each [[estuary]] <ref name="Olenin2006">Olenin S, Ducrotoy JP (2006) The concept of biotope in marine ecology and coastal management. Mar Pollut Bull 53: 20–29.</ref> . They seem to be similar in all estuaries but what makes each estuary special is the physical, chemical and biological (biogeochemical) links between the biotopes. These interrelations depend upon hydrology, sediment transport, [[Nutrient <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">conversion in the marine environment</ins>|nutrient transfer]] and biological cycles. Naturally, other variations between estuaries exist. The main structuring environmental factors appear to be [[salinity]], water movements and [[turbidity]]. They affect the heterogeneity (or structure) of each ecosystem, as well as their complexity (in terms of relations between structural attributes).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes inflicted on them, the estuaries presented in this paper stand out as specific and valuable socio-ecosystems. They consist in highly dynamical systems and the global change is increasing the speed of change. Even with the pressure exerted by human societies on their ecology, estuaries stand as assets to humans. Similar ecological functions are found in all of them, which provide valuable goods and services to human societies <ref name="Costanza1993">Costanza R, Kemp WM, Boynton WR (1993) Predictability, Scale, and Biodiversity in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems— Implications for Management.Ambio 22: 88–96.</ref>. Amongst those, biogeochemical cycling, in particular nutrients, water purification and mitigation of floods are much looked for. Tett ''et al''. (2007) <ref name="Tet2007">Tett P, Gowen R, Mills D, Fernandes T, Gilpin L, Huxham M, Kennington K, Read P, Service M, Wilkinson M Malcolm S (2007) Defining and detecting undesirable disturbance in the context of marine eutrophication. Mar Pollut Bull 55: 282–297.</ref> suggested that an ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (figure 1). Pushed beyond a certain point, however, change becomes rapid, and may culminate in a radically altered state from which recovery would be slow (see also the article [[Resilience and resistance]]). An example would be the occurrence of extensive deep water anoxia, resulting in the widespread elimination of benthos and fish in the Scheldt and the Seine in the 1990s<ref>Billen, G., Garnier, J. and Rousseau, V. 2005. Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Hydrobiologia 540: 47-67</ref>.  A key operational need, when considering restoring any estuary, is to detect a trend towards such a widespread undesirable disturbance before the ecosystem has reached the limit of its resistance <ref name="Diaz 2008">Diaz, R.J. and R. Rosenberg. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: 926-928.</ref>. Case studies show however that ecosystems do not return to the same state after removal of a pressure, but to a different one. Re-estuarisation often implies re-creating damaged habitats from scratch <ref name="Ducrotory">Ducrotoy J.-P. (2011) Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 4–14.</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes inflicted on them, the estuaries presented in this paper stand out as specific and valuable socio-ecosystems. They consist in highly dynamical systems and the global change is increasing the speed of change. Even with the pressure exerted by human societies on their ecology, estuaries stand as assets to humans. Similar ecological functions are found in all of them, which provide valuable goods and services to human societies <ref name="Costanza1993">Costanza R, Kemp WM, Boynton WR (1993) Predictability, Scale, and Biodiversity in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems— Implications for Management.Ambio 22: 88–96.</ref>. Amongst those, biogeochemical cycling, in particular nutrients, water purification and mitigation of floods are much looked for. Tett ''et al''. (2007) <ref name="Tet2007">Tett P, Gowen R, Mills D, Fernandes T, Gilpin L, Huxham M, Kennington K, Read P, Service M, Wilkinson M Malcolm S (2007) Defining and detecting undesirable disturbance in the context of marine eutrophication. Mar Pollut Bull 55: 282–297.</ref> suggested that an ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (figure 1). Pushed beyond a certain point, however, change becomes rapid, and may culminate in a radically altered state from which recovery would be slow (see also the article [[Resilience and resistance]]). An example would be the occurrence of extensive deep water anoxia, resulting in the widespread elimination of benthos and fish in the Scheldt and the Seine in the 1990s<ref>Billen, G., Garnier, J. and Rousseau, V. 2005. Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Hydrobiologia 540: 47-67</ref>.  A key operational need, when considering restoring any estuary, is to detect a trend towards such a widespread undesirable disturbance before the ecosystem has reached the limit of its resistance <ref name="Diaz 2008">Diaz, R.J. and R. Rosenberg. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: 926-928.</ref>. Case studies show however that ecosystems do not return to the same state after removal of a pressure, but to a different one. Re-estuarisation often implies re-creating damaged habitats from scratch <ref name="Ducrotory">Ducrotoy J.-P. (2011) Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 4–14.</ref>.</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78569&oldid=prevDronkers J at 21:56, 4 January 20212021-01-04T21:56:10Z<p></p>
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<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>This article is largely based on Ducrotoy, J-P. 2010. Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>This article is largely based on Ducrotoy, J-P. 2010. Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 174–184.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 174–184.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l4" >Line 4:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 5:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Introduction ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Introduction ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] are open systems and are essential interfaces between rivers and the coast. They constitute main transition zones or ecotones between land, the ocean and the atmosphere. In the [[North Sea]] and the English Channel (North-West Europe), the role of the [[tide]] is paramount, with a tidal range over 10 m in some areas. So, large macrotidal estuaries have developed there (the Elbe, the Weser, the Scheldt, the Humber, the Thames, the Seine,...). Geomorphology is essential to understand when comparing such estuaries. It is rapidly evolving because of natural processes (mainly hydrological, due to sea level rise and increasing tides). Estuaries are also greatly influenced by changes in the watersheds. The main factors affecting the hyporheic zone are the width and the depth of the river bed, the river flow and constructions (dams, embankments, polders...) by humans. Human activities, mainly through reclamation, have accelerated natural morphological processes and worsened the degradation of estuarine resources <ref name = "berkes">Berkes F, Hughes TP, Steneck RS, Wilson JA, Bellwood DR, Crona B, Folke C, Gunderson LH, Leslie HM, Norberg J, Nyström M, Olsson P, Osterblom H, Scheffer M, Worm B (2006) Ecology—Globalization, roving bandits, and marine resources.Science 311: 1557–1558.</ref>. In the estuaries presented here, the erection of dykes and the reclamation of land have dislocated the hydro-systems and limited access to estuarine animal and vegetal communities. Longitudinally, there has been an increase of tidal effects and salinity which have forced some estuarine species out of estuaries. The turbidity maximum also has a general tendency to move outwards. Transversally, dykes have broken connections between aquatic [[habitat|habitats]] and reduced the area and diversity of wet land, including intertidal flats and salt marshes. In all ecosystems, there has been a parallel decrease of fresh water tidal habitats for fish, birds, and the benthos on which they feed.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] are open systems and are essential interfaces between rivers and the coast. They constitute main transition zones or ecotones between land, the ocean and the atmosphere. In the [[North Sea]] and the English Channel (North-West Europe), the role of the [[tide]] is paramount, with a tidal range over 10 m in some areas. So, large macrotidal estuaries have developed there (the Elbe, the Weser, the Scheldt, the Humber, the Thames, the Seine,...). Geomorphology is essential to understand when comparing such estuaries. It is rapidly evolving because of natural processes (mainly hydrological, due to sea level rise and increasing tides). Estuaries are also greatly influenced by changes in the watersheds. The main factors affecting the hyporheic zone are the width and the depth of the river bed, the river flow and constructions (dams, embankments, polders...) by humans. Human activities, mainly through reclamation, have accelerated natural morphological processes and worsened the degradation of estuarine resources <ref name = "berkes">Berkes F, Hughes TP, Steneck RS, Wilson JA, Bellwood DR, Crona B, Folke C, Gunderson LH, Leslie HM, Norberg J, Nyström M, Olsson P, Osterblom H, Scheffer M, Worm B (2006) Ecology—Globalization, roving bandits, and marine resources. Science 311: 1557–1558.</ref>. In the estuaries presented here, the erection of dykes and the reclamation of land have dislocated the hydro-systems and limited access to estuarine animal and vegetal communities. Longitudinally, there has been an increase of tidal effects and salinity which have forced some estuarine species out of estuaries. The turbidity maximum also has a general tendency to move outwards. Transversally, dykes have broken connections between aquatic [[habitat|habitats]] and reduced the area and diversity of wet land, including intertidal flats and salt marshes. In all ecosystems, there has been a parallel decrease of fresh water tidal habitats for fish, birds, and the benthos on which they feed.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] within Europe are managed to protect features designated under EU directives, notably their habitats and species in order to build upon their conservation objectives. This approach is no different from that adopted in other countries, for example the US Clean Water Act. Ecological restoration requires to build these into an iterative environmental management system which treats the environment as an entity to be managed as a whole <ref name="Eliot 2010">Elliott M. & Ducrotoy J.-P. (2010). Management plans for four North Sea estuaries : the Elbe, the Weser, the Humber and the Scheldt. ECSA Bulletin, 55: 15-22.</ref>. This is why, on the long-term, the main objective of estuarine habitat restoration in Europe is to enable the gradual re-establishment of ecological functions, leading to the (re)installation of typical estuarine communities. This can be accomplished through increasing fluxes of water circulating in the estuary and re-establishing connections between the various aquatic components of ecosystems. Adopting such objectives means considering each estuary as a whole including peri-estuarine areas such as the flood plain, associated marshes and land claimed by humans essentially over the last 150 years.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Estuaries]] within Europe are managed to protect features designated under EU directives, notably their habitats and species in order to build upon their conservation objectives. This approach is no different from that adopted in other countries, for example the US <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Clean Water Act<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>. Ecological restoration requires to build these into an iterative environmental management system which treats the environment as an entity to be managed as a whole <ref name="Eliot 2010">Elliott M. & Ducrotoy J.-P. (2010). Management plans for four North Sea estuaries : the Elbe, the Weser, the Humber and the Scheldt. ECSA Bulletin, 55: 15-22.</ref>. This is why, on the long-term, the main objective of estuarine habitat restoration in Europe is to enable the gradual re-establishment of ecological functions, leading to the (re)installation of typical estuarine communities. This can be accomplished through increasing fluxes of water circulating in the estuary and re-establishing connections between the various aquatic components of ecosystems. Adopting such objectives means considering each estuary as a whole including peri-estuarine areas such as the flood plain, associated marshes and land claimed by humans essentially over the last 150 years.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l16" >Line 16:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 17:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes in their morphology over a centenary and a half, North-West European estuaries are still productive [[Marine habitats and ecosystems|marine ecosystems]]. In all of them, [[Marine Biodiversity |biodiversity]] reflects their ecological value, not necessarily in terms of species richness, but in terms of diversity of habitats and biotopes <ref name="Ducrotoy 2010a">Ducrotoy JP (2010) La restauration écologique des estuaires. Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 196.</ref>. Biotopes constitute sub-units of ecosystems and are displayed as a mosaic in each [[estuary]] <ref name="Olenin2006">Olenin S, Ducrotoy JP (2006) The concept of biotope in marine ecology and coastal management. Mar Pollut Bull 53: 20–29.</ref> . They seem to be similar in all estuaries but what makes each estuary special is the physical, chemical and biological (biogeochemical) links between the biotopes. These interrelations depend upon hydrology, sediment transport, [[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation|nutrient transfer]] and biological cycles. Naturally, other variations between estuaries exist. The main structuring environmental factors appear to be [[salinity]], water movements and [[turbidity]]. They affect the heterogeneity (or structure) of each ecosystem, as well as their complexity (in terms of relations between structural attributes).  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes in their morphology over a centenary and a half, North-West European estuaries are still productive [[Marine habitats and ecosystems|marine ecosystems]]. In all of them, [[Marine Biodiversity |biodiversity]] reflects their ecological value, not necessarily in terms of species richness, but in terms of diversity of habitats and biotopes <ref name="Ducrotoy 2010a">Ducrotoy JP (2010) La restauration écologique des estuaires. Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 196.</ref>. Biotopes constitute sub-units of ecosystems and are displayed as a mosaic in each [[estuary]] <ref name="Olenin2006">Olenin S, Ducrotoy JP (2006) The concept of biotope in marine ecology and coastal management. Mar Pollut Bull 53: 20–29.</ref> . They seem to be similar in all estuaries but what makes each estuary special is the physical, chemical and biological (biogeochemical) links between the biotopes. These interrelations depend upon hydrology, sediment transport, [[Continental Nutrient Sources and Nutrient Transformation|nutrient transfer]] and biological cycles. Naturally, other variations between estuaries exist. The main structuring environmental factors appear to be [[salinity]], water movements and [[turbidity]]. They affect the heterogeneity (or structure) of each ecosystem, as well as their complexity (in terms of relations between structural attributes).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes inflicted on them, the estuaries presented in this paper stand out as specific and valuable socio-ecosystems. They consist in highly dynamical systems and the global change is increasing the speed of change. Even with the pressure exerted by human societies on their ecology, estuaries stand as assets to humans. Similar ecological functions are found in all of them, which provide valuable goods and services to human societies <ref name="Costanza1993">Costanza R, Kemp WM, Boynton WR (1993) Predictability, Scale, and Biodiversity in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems— Implications for Management.Ambio 22: 88–96.</ref>. Amongst those, biogeochemical cycling, in particular nutrients, water purification and mitigation of floods are much looked for. Tett ''et al''. (2007) <ref name="Tet2007">Tett P, Gowen R, Mills D, Fernandes T, Gilpin L, Huxham M, Kennington K, Read P, Service M, Wilkinson M Malcolm S (2007) Defining and detecting undesirable disturbance in the context of marine eutrophication. Mar Pollut Bull 55: 282–297.</ref> suggested that an ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (figure 1). Pushed beyond a certain point, however, change becomes rapid, and may culminate in a radically altered state from which recovery would be slow. An example would be the occurrence of extensive deep water anoxia, resulting in the widespread elimination of benthos and fish in the Scheldt and the Seine in the 1990s. A key operational need, when considering restoring any estuary, is to detect a trend towards such a widespread undesirable disturbance before the ecosystem has reached the limit of its resistance <ref name="Diaz 2008">Diaz, R.J. and R. Rosenberg. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: 926-928.</ref>. Case studies show however that ecosystems do not return to the same state after removal of a pressure, but to a different one. Re-estuarisation often implies re-creating damaged habitats from scratch <ref name="Ducrotory">Ducrotoy J.-P. (2011) Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 4–14.</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite radical changes inflicted on them, the estuaries presented in this paper stand out as specific and valuable socio-ecosystems. They consist in highly dynamical systems and the global change is increasing the speed of change. Even with the pressure exerted by human societies on their ecology, estuaries stand as assets to humans. Similar ecological functions are found in all of them, which provide valuable goods and services to human societies <ref name="Costanza1993">Costanza R, Kemp WM, Boynton WR (1993) Predictability, Scale, and Biodiversity in Coastal and Estuarine Ecosystems— Implications for Management.Ambio 22: 88–96.</ref>. Amongst those, biogeochemical cycling, in particular nutrients, water purification and mitigation of floods are much looked for. Tett ''et al''. (2007) <ref name="Tet2007">Tett P, Gowen R, Mills D, Fernandes T, Gilpin L, Huxham M, Kennington K, Read P, Service M, Wilkinson M Malcolm S (2007) Defining and detecting undesirable disturbance in the context of marine eutrophication. Mar Pollut Bull 55: 282–297.</ref> suggested that an ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (figure 1). Pushed beyond a certain point, however, change becomes rapid, and may culminate in a radically altered state from which recovery would be slow <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(see also the article [[Resilience and resistance]])</ins>. An example would be the occurrence of extensive deep water anoxia, resulting in the widespread elimination of benthos and fish in the Scheldt and the Seine in the 1990s<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref>Billen, G., Garnier, J. and Rousseau, V. 2005. Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Hydrobiologia 540: 47-67</ref></ins>. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>A key operational need, when considering restoring any estuary, is to detect a trend towards such a widespread undesirable disturbance before the ecosystem has reached the limit of its resistance <ref name="Diaz 2008">Diaz, R.J. and R. Rosenberg. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321: 926-928.</ref>. Case studies show however that ecosystems do not return to the same state after removal of a pressure, but to a different one. Re-estuarisation often implies re-creating damaged habitats from scratch <ref name="Ducrotory">Ducrotoy J.-P. (2011) Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 4–14.</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>  {| width = "600" align ="center" style="text-align:center; font-size:85%"</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>  {| width = "600" align ="center" style="text-align:center; font-size:85%"</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|valign="top"| [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Image</del>:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Ecological response to increasing pressure</del>.jpg|600px]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|valign="top"| [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">File</ins>:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">EcosystemHysteresis</ins>.jpg|600px]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|-</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|-</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|valign="top"|Figure 1: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">an </del>ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">document </del>[http://www.hull.ac.uk/iecs/ IECS])</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|valign="top"|Figure 1: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Hysteresis in ecosystem response to temporary disturbance. An </ins>ecosystem impacted by anthropogenic factors may, because of its resistance to disturbance, initially show little response to increasing pressure (<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">adapted from </ins>[http://www.hull.ac.uk/iecs/ IECS])<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|}</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The way forward==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The way forward==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Climate change will affect managers' views on the permanence of estuarine socio-ecosystems. In the future, the restoration of damaged habitats will be instrumental in adapting socio-economic activities <ref name="Folke2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name="Hughes2007">Hughes TP, Gunderson LH, Folke C, Baird AH, Bellwood D, Berkes F, Crona B, Helfgott A, Leslie H, Norberg J, Nystram M, Olsson P, Asterblom H, Scheffer M, Schuttenberg H, Steneck RS, Tenga M, Troell M, Walker B, Wilson J, Worm B. (2007) Adaptive management of the great barrier reef and the Grand Canyon world heritage areas. Ambio 36: 586–592.</ref> to changing environmental conditions <ref name ="Diaz2004">Diaz RJ, Solan M, Valente RM (2004) A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality. J Environ Manage 73: 165–181.</ref>. In this context, [[sea level rise]], presently estimated at <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">40 </del>cm per century and expected to increase, according to the prognosis of [http://www.ipcc.ch/ IPCC], in the second part of the century, is a paramount challenge. Besides the enlargement of tidal capacity, a reduction of the cross-section profile at the mouth of the estuaries ought to hold back part of the tidal energy in the event of a storm surge. What will be the implications of such events for estuarine ecological restoration? Climate change will make "[[habitat|habitats]]" of interest more fragile and less resilient. The Scheldt example has shown that a patrimonial view of ecosystems is not necessarily compatible with promoting new functions in an estuary. The Seine compensation measures showed how important habitats are as there is a need to allow species to adapt to new biophysical conditions. Nevertheless, ecosystems are dynamical and restoration needs to focus on ecosystems (and how they function), not species <ref name="Elliot2007">Elliott M, Quintino V (2007) The estuarine quality paradox, environmental homeostasis and the difficulty of detecting anthropogenic stress in naturally stressed areas. Mar Pollut Bull 54: 640–645.</ref>.<p>  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Climate change will affect managers' views on the permanence of estuarine socio-ecosystems. In the future, the restoration of damaged habitats will be instrumental in adapting socio-economic activities <ref name="Folke2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name="Hughes2007">Hughes TP, Gunderson LH, Folke C, Baird AH, Bellwood D, Berkes F, Crona B, Helfgott A, Leslie H, Norberg J, Nystram M, Olsson P, Asterblom H, Scheffer M, Schuttenberg H, Steneck RS, Tenga M, Troell M, Walker B, Wilson J, Worm B. (2007) Adaptive management of the great barrier reef and the Grand Canyon world heritage areas. Ambio 36: 586–592.</ref> to changing environmental conditions <ref name ="Diaz2004">Diaz RJ, Solan M, Valente RM (2004) A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality. J Environ Manage 73: 165–181.</ref>. In this context, [[sea level rise]], presently estimated at <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">30 </ins>cm per century and expected to increase, according to the prognosis of [http://www.ipcc.ch/ IPCC], in the second part of the century, is a paramount challenge. Besides the enlargement of tidal capacity, a reduction of the cross-section profile at the mouth of the estuaries ought to hold back part of the tidal energy in the event of a storm surge. What will be the implications of such events for estuarine ecological restoration? Climate change will make "[[habitat|habitats]]" of interest more fragile and less resilient. The Scheldt example has shown that a patrimonial view of ecosystems is not necessarily compatible with promoting new functions in an estuary. The Seine compensation measures showed how important habitats are as there is a need to allow species to adapt to new biophysical conditions. Nevertheless, ecosystems are dynamical and restoration needs to focus on ecosystems (and how they function), not species <ref name="Elliot2007">Elliott M, Quintino V (2007) The estuarine quality paradox, environmental homeostasis and the difficulty of detecting anthropogenic stress in naturally stressed areas. Mar Pollut Bull 54: 640–645.</ref>.<p>  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to get sustainable and successful management, harmonisation is required within and between sectors, stakeholders, regulators, mediums, estuaries, regions, countries, outcomes and implementation. This is because North-West Europe estuaries are regarded as multi-user spaces and so there are many things which need to be managed (and by whom) <ref name="Eliot 2010"/>: <p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to get sustainable and successful management, harmonisation is required within and between sectors, stakeholders, regulators, mediums, estuaries, regions, countries, outcomes and implementation. This is because North-West Europe estuaries are regarded as multi-user spaces and so there are many things which need to be managed (and by whom) <ref name="Eliot 2010"/>: <p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:* habitats (nature conservation agencies),  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:* habitats (nature conservation agencies),  </div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78563&oldid=prevDronkers J at 16:14, 2 January 20212021-01-02T16:14:09Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">:[[Estuarine ecosystems]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Habitat]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Habitat]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">:[[Estuaries and tidal rivers]]</del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Threats to the coastal zone]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Threats to the coastal zone]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine habitats and ecosystems]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine habitats and ecosystems]]</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Natural variability and change in coastal ecosystems]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Natural variability and change in coastal ecosystems]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Conservation and restoration of coastal and estuarine habitats]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Conservation and restoration of coastal and estuarine habitats]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">:[[Morphology of estuaries]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">:[[Tidal asymmetry and tidal basin morphodynamics]]</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78495&oldid=prevDronkers J at 12:04, 27 December 20202020-12-27T12:04:22Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Threats to the coastal zone]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Threats to the coastal zone]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine habitats and ecosystems]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine habitats and ecosystems]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Impact </del>of fisheries on <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">coastal systems</del>]]  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Effects </ins>of fisheries on <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">marine biodiversity</ins>]]  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Natural variability and change in coastal ecosystems]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Natural variability and change in coastal ecosystems]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Conservation and restoration of coastal and estuarine habitats]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Conservation and restoration of coastal and estuarine habitats]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78395&oldid=prevDronkers J at 14:13, 2 December 20202020-12-02T14:13:02Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to define strategies compatible with conservation and sustainable development at the local, regional and European levels, environmental aspects must be integrated in the management of estuaries, which must rely on thorough collaboration between and mutual understanding of all actors and stakeholders. Resting on a rigorous scientific approach, restoring ecological functionalities in an estuary is dependent on efficient procedures of socio-ecological evaluation including a methodology to assess the ecological quality of systems considered <ref name ="Bingham1995">Bingham G, Bishop R, Brody M, Bromley D, Clark E, Cooper W, Costanza R, Hale T, Hayden G, Kellert S, Norgaard R, Norton B, Payne J, Russell C, Suter G (1995) Issues in Ecosystem Valuation— Improving Information for Decision-Making. Ecol Econ 14: 73–90.</ref><ref name ="Costanza1998">Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O’Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, van den Belt M (1998) The value of ecosystem services: putting the issues in perspective. Ecol Econ 25: 67–72.</ref><ref name="de Groot2002">de Groot R, Wilson MA, Boumans RMJ (2002) A typology for classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol Econ 41:393–408.</ref>. For making interdisciplinarity work, socio-economics need to be considered in the early stages of the elaboration of any restoration programme.<p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to define strategies compatible with conservation and sustainable development at the local, regional and European levels, environmental aspects must be integrated in the management of estuaries, which must rely on thorough collaboration between and mutual understanding of all actors and stakeholders. Resting on a rigorous scientific approach, restoring ecological functionalities in an estuary is dependent on efficient procedures of socio-ecological evaluation including a methodology to assess the ecological quality of systems considered <ref name ="Bingham1995">Bingham G, Bishop R, Brody M, Bromley D, Clark E, Cooper W, Costanza R, Hale T, Hayden G, Kellert S, Norgaard R, Norton B, Payne J, Russell C, Suter G (1995) Issues in Ecosystem Valuation— Improving Information for Decision-Making. Ecol Econ 14: 73–90.</ref><ref name ="Costanza1998">Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O’Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, van den Belt M (1998) The value of ecosystem services: putting the issues in perspective. Ecol Econ 25: 67–72.</ref><ref name="de Groot2002">de Groot R, Wilson MA, Boumans RMJ (2002) A typology for classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol Econ 41:393–408.</ref>. For making interdisciplinarity work, socio-economics need to be considered in the early stages of the elaboration of any restoration programme.<p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Putting the project in a scientific perspective implies the application of fundamentals of [[Topic:Ecology|ecology]]. Because of the popularity of certain concepts, including biodiversity, productivity, etc., definition and use of important terms may have been misinterpreted <ref name="Ducrotoy2008">Ducrotoy JP, Yanagi T (2008) Tools and concepts on ecological quality of coastal and estuarine environments. Mar Pollut Bull 57: 1–2.</ref>. For example, most often, the general public thinks that biodiversity is at the basis of robust and productive ecosystems. Recently, Elliott & Quintino (2007) <ref name="Elliot2007">Elliott M, Quintino V (2007) The estuarine quality paradox, environmental homeostasis and the difficulty of detecting anthropogenic stress in naturally stressed areas. Mar Pollut Bull 54: 640–645.</ref> have put into light the quality paradox of estuaries, where poor species richness supports high production and stability <ref>Holling, C.S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1-23.</ref><ref name ="Peterson2010">Peterson GD, Allen CR, Holling CS (2010) Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems 1: 6–18.</ref>.<p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Putting the project in a scientific perspective implies the application of fundamentals of [[Topic:Ecology|ecology]]. Because of the popularity of certain concepts, including biodiversity, productivity, etc., definition and use of important terms may have been misinterpreted <ref name="Ducrotoy2008">Ducrotoy JP, Yanagi T (2008) Tools and concepts on ecological quality of coastal and estuarine environments. Mar Pollut Bull 57: 1–2.</ref>. For example, most often, the general public thinks that biodiversity is at the basis of robust and productive ecosystems. Recently, Elliott & Quintino (2007) <ref name="Elliot2007">Elliott M, Quintino V (2007) The estuarine quality paradox, environmental homeostasis and the difficulty of detecting anthropogenic stress in naturally stressed areas. Mar Pollut Bull 54: 640–645.</ref> have put into light the quality paradox of estuaries, where poor species richness supports high production and stability <ref>Holling, C.S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1-23.</ref><ref name ="Peterson2010">Peterson GD, Allen CR, Holling CS (2010) Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems 1: 6–18.</ref>.<p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The concept of habitat is therefore essential as a species might disappear but a habitat remains available for [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Thresholds of environmental sustainablility</del>|shifting species]]. Unfortunately, European and national legislation aimed at protecting habitats are species based, locked by conservation management. With the arrival of “new” species, whether they will move in response to the [[climate change|climatic change]] or they were [[Non-native species invasions|introduced artificially]], conditions should be made to avoid “fossilisation” of protected habitats. It might be necessary to accommodate shifts in spatial distribution and alien species. However, one may ask whether the legislative framework is fit for purpose when habitats will need to be adapted to changing biophysical conditions <ref name="Harris 2006">Harris JA, Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, Aronson J (2006) Ecological restoration and global climate change. Restoration Ecol 14: 170–176.</ref>. Breakdown in geographical barriers or deliberate and inadvertent transport of species could be at the origin of new "emerging" ecosystems, of which the functional characteristics are unknown today. From all examples given, it has been shown that it is impossible to freeze an ecosystem at a particular stage of its evolution and that it is further impossible to return backward in time. Fundamental research needs to address the issue of better understanding future shifts in ecological niches. Rigorous monitoring programs, resting on a relevant choice of indicators (table 1), should be linked to research and data used more efficiently and on the long-term <ref name = "Ducrotoy 2010b">Ducrotoy JP (2010) The use of biotopes in assessing the environmental quality of tidal estuaries in Europe. EstuarCoastShelfSci 86: 317–321</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The concept of habitat is therefore essential as a species might disappear but a habitat remains available for [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Ecological thresholds and regime shifts</ins>|shifting species]]. Unfortunately, European and national legislation aimed at protecting habitats are species based, locked by conservation management. With the arrival of “new” species, whether they will move in response to the [[climate change|climatic change]] or they were [[Non-native species invasions|introduced artificially]], conditions should be made to avoid “fossilisation” of protected habitats. It might be necessary to accommodate shifts in spatial distribution and alien species. However, one may ask whether the legislative framework is fit for purpose when habitats will need to be adapted to changing biophysical conditions <ref name="Harris 2006">Harris JA, Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, Aronson J (2006) Ecological restoration and global climate change. Restoration Ecol 14: 170–176.</ref>. Breakdown in geographical barriers or deliberate and inadvertent transport of species could be at the origin of new "emerging" ecosystems, of which the functional characteristics are unknown today. From all examples given, it has been shown that it is impossible to freeze an ecosystem at a particular stage of its evolution and that it is further impossible to return backward in time. Fundamental research needs to address the issue of better understanding future shifts in ecological niches. Rigorous monitoring programs, resting on a relevant choice of indicators (table 1), should be linked to research and data used more efficiently and on the long-term <ref name = "Ducrotoy 2010b">Ducrotoy JP (2010) The use of biotopes in assessing the environmental quality of tidal estuaries in Europe. EstuarCoastShelfSci 86: 317–321</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br></div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=78032&oldid=prevDronkers J at 13:36, 10 September 20202020-09-10T13:36:32Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 13:36, 10 September 2020</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===The Scheldt===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===The Scheldt===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Past management and unexpected changes have had a negative impact on the delivery of ecosystem services by estuaries and hence on the [[Resilience and resistance|resilience of ecosystems]] <ref name="Folke2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name=Gunderson>Gunderson L and Folke C (2005) Resilience—Now more than ever.EcolSoc 10: 22.</ref>. This resulted in growing socio-economic problems (e.g. inundations, eutrophication, siltation, ...) in the various instances considered. The carrying capacity and the assimilative capacity of ecosystems might be overrun and signs such as [[pollution]] show that their <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Biodiversity changes and ecosystem functioning|</del>ecological functioning<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </del>is affected <ref name="Arrow">Arrow K, Bolin B, Costanza R, Dasgupta P, Folke C, Holling CS, Jansson B-O, Levin S, Mäler K-G, Perrings C, Pimentel D.  (1995) Economic-Growth, Carrying-Capacity, and the Environment. Science 268: 520–521.</ref>.<br>  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Past management and unexpected changes have had a negative impact on the delivery of ecosystem services by estuaries and hence on the [[Resilience and resistance|resilience of ecosystems]] <ref name="Folke2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name=Gunderson>Gunderson L and Folke C (2005) Resilience—Now more than ever.EcolSoc 10: 22.</ref>. This resulted in growing socio-economic problems (e.g. inundations, eutrophication, siltation, ...) in the various instances considered. The carrying capacity and the assimilative capacity of ecosystems might be overrun and signs such as [[pollution]] show that their ecological functioning is affected <ref name="Arrow">Arrow K, Bolin B, Costanza R, Dasgupta P, Folke C, Holling CS, Jansson B-O, Levin S, Mäler K-G, Perrings C, Pimentel D.  (1995) Economic-Growth, Carrying-Capacity, and the Environment. Science 268: 520–521.</ref>.<br>  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Precisely, the consideration of the carrying capacity of the estuarine ecosystem and ecological thresholds <ref>D, Reynolds J, Turner M, Weathers K, Wiens J (2006) Ecological thresholds: The key to successful environmental management or an important concept with no practical application? Ecosystems 9: 1–13.</ref> has been instrumental in putting together the restoration plan of the Scheldt estuary, in particular measuring the importance of re-creating tidal systems. In the 1990s, it was felt that tidal wetland restoration would be necessary in order to compensate loss of habitat <ref name="Eertman 2002">Eertman RHM, Kornman BA, Stikvoort E, Verbeek H (2002) Restoration of the Sieperda tidal marsh in the Scheldt estuary, the Netherlands. Restoration Ecol 10: 438–449.</ref>. <p></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Precisely, the consideration of the carrying capacity of the estuarine ecosystem and ecological thresholds <ref>D, Reynolds J, Turner M, Weathers K, Wiens J (2006) Ecological thresholds: The key to successful environmental management or an important concept with no practical application? Ecosystems 9: 1–13.</ref> has been instrumental in putting together the restoration plan of the Scheldt estuary, in particular measuring the importance of re-creating tidal systems. In the 1990s, it was felt that tidal wetland restoration would be necessary in order to compensate loss of habitat <ref name="Eertman 2002">Eertman RHM, Kornman BA, Stikvoort E, Verbeek H (2002) Restoration of the Sieperda tidal marsh in the Scheldt estuary, the Netherlands. Restoration Ecol 10: 438–449.</ref>. <p></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In combination with a master plan to protect the population from storm surges, an opportunity arose to restore areas under tidal influence. One specific option of combining safety and ecology was the creation of flood control areas under the influence of a controlled reduced tide (CRT) <ref name="Maris2007">Maris T, Cox T, Temmerman S, De Vleeschauwer P, Van Damme S, De Mulder T, Van den Bergh E, Meire P (2007) Tuning the tide: creating ecological conditions for tidal marsh development in a flood control area. Hydrobiologia 588: 31–34.</ref>. These specific areas differ in many ways from fully tidal areas but can fulfil important ecological functions with effects on aeration, sedimentation <ref name="ten Brinke">Ten Brinke WBM, Dronkers J (1993) Physical and biotic aspects of fine-sediment import in the Oosterschelde tidal basin (The Netherlands).Neth J Sea Res 31: 19–36.</ref><ref name="Bolle 2010">Bolle A, Bing Wang Z, Amos C, De Ronde J (2010) The influence of changes in tidal asymmetry on residual sediment transport in the Western Scheldt. Cont Shelf Res 30: 871–882.</ref> nitrification, [[denitrification]], and [[primary production]] in the estuary <ref name="Billen 2005">Billen G, Garnier J, Rousseau V (2005) Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Hydrobiologia 540: 47–67.</ref>. Opportunities for ecological development within a CRT have been investigated for a specific case. The ecology within a CRT was shown to be very case specific, depending e.g. on the morphology of the area, the sluice design and the local water quality <ref>[http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=107942 Van Den Berghe E, Van Damme S, Graveland J, De Jong D, Baten I, Meire P (2005) Ecological rehabilitation of the Schelde Estuary (The Netherlands-Belgium; Northwest Europe): Linking ecology, safety against floods, and accessibility for port development. Restoration Ecol 13: 204–214.]</ref>. Depending on the sluice design, water quality can be improved and sedimentation can be influenced. A scientific approach to the management of these sensitive areas made it possible to design CRTs with a rich habitat variation <ref name="Maris 2007">Maris T, Cox T, Temmerman S, De Vleeschauwer P, Van Damme S, De Mulder T, Van den Bergh E, Meire P (2007) Tuning the tide: creating ecological conditions for tidal marsh development in a flood control area. Hydrobiologia 588: 31–34.</ref>. Some ideas for the future restoration of estuaries world-wide should emanate from that approach. Any future estuarine management plan should take into consideration the type and the proportion of each habitats which needs to be (re)-created in order to provide the ecosystem with expected functionalities <ref name="Diaz2004">Diaz RJ, Solan M, Valente RM (2004) A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality. J Environ Manage 73: 165–181.</ref>. In parallel, expected goods and services to be provided should be adapted <ref name="Folke 2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name="Hughes 2007"> Hughes TP, Gunderson LH, Folke C, Baird AH, Bellwood D, Berkes F, Crona B, Helfgott A, Leslie H, Norberg J, Nystram M, Olsson P, Asterblom H, Scheffer M, Schuttenberg H, Steneck RS, Tenga M, Troell M, Walker B, Wilson J, Worm B. (2007) Adaptive management of the great barrier reef and the Grand Canyon world heritage areas. Ambio 36: 586–592.</ref>. The main requirement to sustain such measures is that they should ensure resilience and adaptability <ref name = Peterson2010>Peterson GD, Allen CR, Holling CS (2010) Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems 1: 6–18. </ref>. So, planning should include actions to mitigate or to reverse the local effects of [[climate change]] (e.g. [[sea level rise]]) and slow down the global change (e.g. through CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration).</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In combination with a master plan to protect the population from storm surges, an opportunity arose to restore areas under tidal influence. One specific option of combining safety and ecology was the creation of flood control areas under the influence of a controlled reduced tide (CRT) <ref name="Maris2007">Maris T, Cox T, Temmerman S, De Vleeschauwer P, Van Damme S, De Mulder T, Van den Bergh E, Meire P (2007) Tuning the tide: creating ecological conditions for tidal marsh development in a flood control area. Hydrobiologia 588: 31–34.</ref>. These specific areas differ in many ways from fully tidal areas but can fulfil important ecological functions with effects on aeration, sedimentation <ref name="ten Brinke">Ten Brinke WBM, Dronkers J (1993) Physical and biotic aspects of fine-sediment import in the Oosterschelde tidal basin (The Netherlands).Neth J Sea Res 31: 19–36.</ref><ref name="Bolle 2010">Bolle A, Bing Wang Z, Amos C, De Ronde J (2010) The influence of changes in tidal asymmetry on residual sediment transport in the Western Scheldt. Cont Shelf Res 30: 871–882.</ref> nitrification, [[denitrification]], and [[primary production]] in the estuary <ref name="Billen 2005">Billen G, Garnier J, Rousseau V (2005) Nutrient fluxes and water quality in the drainage network of the Scheldt basin over the last 50 years. Hydrobiologia 540: 47–67.</ref>. Opportunities for ecological development within a CRT have been investigated for a specific case. The ecology within a CRT was shown to be very case specific, depending e.g. on the morphology of the area, the sluice design and the local water quality <ref>[http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=107942 Van Den Berghe E, Van Damme S, Graveland J, De Jong D, Baten I, Meire P (2005) Ecological rehabilitation of the Schelde Estuary (The Netherlands-Belgium; Northwest Europe): Linking ecology, safety against floods, and accessibility for port development. Restoration Ecol 13: 204–214.]</ref>. Depending on the sluice design, water quality can be improved and sedimentation can be influenced. A scientific approach to the management of these sensitive areas made it possible to design CRTs with a rich habitat variation <ref name="Maris 2007">Maris T, Cox T, Temmerman S, De Vleeschauwer P, Van Damme S, De Mulder T, Van den Bergh E, Meire P (2007) Tuning the tide: creating ecological conditions for tidal marsh development in a flood control area. Hydrobiologia 588: 31–34.</ref>. Some ideas for the future restoration of estuaries world-wide should emanate from that approach. Any future estuarine management plan should take into consideration the type and the proportion of each habitats which needs to be (re)-created in order to provide the ecosystem with expected functionalities <ref name="Diaz2004">Diaz RJ, Solan M, Valente RM (2004) A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality. J Environ Manage 73: 165–181.</ref>. In parallel, expected goods and services to be provided should be adapted <ref name="Folke 2002">Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B, Bengtsson J, Berkes F, Colding J, Danell K, Falkenmark M, Gordon L, Kasperson R, Kautsky N, Kinzig A, Levin S, Mäler KG, Moberg F, Ohlsson L, Olsson P, Ostrom E, Reid W, Rockström, Savenije H, Svedin U (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: Building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31: 437–440.</ref><ref name="Hughes 2007"> Hughes TP, Gunderson LH, Folke C, Baird AH, Bellwood D, Berkes F, Crona B, Helfgott A, Leslie H, Norberg J, Nystram M, Olsson P, Asterblom H, Scheffer M, Schuttenberg H, Steneck RS, Tenga M, Troell M, Walker B, Wilson J, Worm B. (2007) Adaptive management of the great barrier reef and the Grand Canyon world heritage areas. Ambio 36: 586–592.</ref>. The main requirement to sustain such measures is that they should ensure resilience and adaptability <ref name = Peterson2010>Peterson GD, Allen CR, Holling CS (2010) Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems 1: 6–18. </ref>. So, planning should include actions to mitigate or to reverse the local effects of [[climate change]] (e.g. [[sea level rise]]) and slow down the global change (e.g. through CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration).</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration_of_estuaries_in_North_Western_Europe&diff=77423&oldid=prevDronkers J at 11:43, 30 July 20202020-07-30T11:43:26Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:43, 30 July 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1" >Line 1:</td>
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<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This article is largely based on Ducrotoy, J-P. 2010. Ecological restoration of tidal estuaries in North Western</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Europe: an adaptive strategy to multi-scale changes. Plankton Benthos Res 5(Suppl.): 174–184.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Introduction ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Introduction ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers J