Difference between revisions of "Ecosystem Approach to the South African West Coast lobster fishery"

From Coastal Wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
(New page: ===Background=== thumb|270px|right|Diagram to show the different stages in the EAMR approach [[Image:Rock lobster.PNG|thumb|270px|right|West Coas...)
 
 
(29 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 
===Background===
 
===Background===
 +
 
[[Image:SouzaDias.0407.diagram.hake.PNG|thumb|270px|right|Diagram to show the different stages in the EAMR approach]]
 
[[Image:SouzaDias.0407.diagram.hake.PNG|thumb|270px|right|Diagram to show the different stages in the EAMR approach]]
  
 
[[Image:Rock lobster.PNG|thumb|270px|right|West Coast rock lobster, Jasus lalandii. Photograph: Stephen Brouwer, Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa.]]
 
[[Image:Rock lobster.PNG|thumb|270px|right|West Coast rock lobster, Jasus lalandii. Photograph: Stephen Brouwer, Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa.]]
  
 +
The application of the [[Ecosystem approach to marine resources (EAMR)| Ecosystem Approach to Marine Resources (EAMR)]] is a priority for the EUR-OCEANS network. EAMR frameworks are adaptive, incremental and geographically specific. In this Fact Sheet we report on the implementation of the EAMR to the small pelagics fishery off South Africa. The EAMR requires a sound scientific base to provide the means of assessing the ecosystem effects of fishing as well as the effectiveness of the various management strategies adopted in response to identified risks or effects. [[Environmental risk assessment of marine activities | Ecological Risk Assessment]] was adopted in South Africa as a means of identifying and prioritising problems associated with selected fisheries in the Benguela region. To illustrate how South Africa is moving toward an EAMR from the basis of biological research, selected ecological issues raised for the purse seine fishery for small pelagics (anchovy ''Engraulis encrasicolus'' and sardine  ''Sardinops sagax'') are examined.  The indicators required to address these issues are identified and the scientific research or monitoring studies necessary to inform these indicators are proposed. Biological or catch data are synthesised into useful indicators that enable changes and ecosystem responses to be followed in a manageable and formal way (e.g. through specific management measures). Technical management measures that may contribute to solving the issues are also suggested.  This will contribute to a management strategy that optimizes social and economic benefits without compromising the integrity and sustainability of the resource and its supporting ecosystem.
  
 +
==The West Coast lobster fishery==
  
The application of the Ecosystem Approach to Marine Resources (EAMR) is a priority for the EUR-OCEANS network (see Fact Sheet 2). EAMR frameworks are adaptive, incremental and geographically specific. In this Fact Sheet we report on the implementation of the EAMR to the small pelagics fishery off South Africa. The EAMR requires a sound scientific base to provide the means of assessing the ecosystem effects of fishing as well as the effectiveness of the various management strategies adopted in response to identified risks or effects. Ecological Risk Assessment was adopted in South Africa as a means of identifying and prioritising problems associated with selected fisheries in the Benguela region. To illustrate how South Africa is moving toward an EAMR from the basis of biological research, selected ecological issues raised for the purse seine fishery for small pelagics (anchovy ''Engraulis encrasicolus'' and sardine  ''Sardinops sagax'') are examined.  The indicators required to address these issues are identified and the scientific research or monitoring studies necessary to inform these indicators are proposed. Biological or catch data are synthesised into useful indicators that enable changes and ecosystem responses to be followed in a manageable and formal way (e.g. through specific management measures). Technical management measures that may contribute to solving the issues are also suggested.  This will contribute to a management strategy that optimizes social and economic benefits without compromising the integrity and sustainability of the resource and its supporting ecosystem.
+
Currently, West Coast rock lobsters are exploited both commercially and recreationally. The commercial fishery, which started in the late 19th century, now consists of offshore (> 30m depth) and nearshore sectors (<30m depth). Fishing is mainly by traps, deployed from vessels in water >30m, or by [[hoopnets]] in shallow water (<30m), deployed from dinghies. Participation in the recreational fishery is by permit only (about 65 000 permits sold annually), and lobsters must be caught between mid-November and April by diving without artificial breathing apparatus or by hoopnets from shore or small vessels. The fishery is currently valued in excess of €32.5 million per annum and provides seasonal employment for approximately of 4 000 people.
  
==The small [[Pelagic | pelagic]] fishery==
+
The   fishery is  subdivided  into different areas that are managed by an annual [[Total Allowable Catch (TAC)]] set using an operational management procedure, minimum size limit, closed fishing season and fishing zones. Management aims to optimise the economic and social benefits of the West Coast rock lobster resource without compromising the long-term biological sustainability of the exploited stock. A management strategy aimed at achieving a 20% increase in resource biomass (>75mm carapace length) between 1996 and 2006 has been adopted. The most recent assessments (2003) suggest that the biomass level is currently about 10% above the 1996 level. From 2006 onwards, the West Coast rock lobster TAC recommendation includes a state of the environment / ecosystem report, to highlight important environmental issues or concerns.
  
South Africa’s fishery for small pelagics developed off the west coast in the late 1940’s and targeted primarily sardine ''Sardinops sagax''. Catches of this species peaked at just over 400 000t in the early 1960’s but declined rapidly thereafter, the collapse of the sardine stock being ascribed to over-fishing, a southward expansion of the fishing grounds, and variable recruitment. To compensate for reduced sardine catches, the fishery switched to smaller-meshed nets in 1964 to target anchovy ''Engraulis encrasicolus'', which replaced sardine as the dominant component of sardine landings. Following an increase in sardine abundance arising from a management strategy that aimed to rebuild the sardine stock, catches of the two species have been at similar levels since the mid-1990s. Round herring Etrumeus whiteheadi is also targeted but to a lesser degree by the fishery.
+
A sharp decline in somatic (body) growth rates at the end of the 1980s resulted in reduced recruitment to the fishery, although the cause of the decline is still not clearly understood. As a result of poor catches of lobster of legal size and concerns regarding increased discard mortality owing to increased handling of undersized lobsters, the minimum size limit was reduced in the early 1990s and has remained unchanged since. During that period, the total allowable catch was decreased and following a recovery of the stock, has since been increased.
  
Almost all of the anchovy and round herring caught are reduced to fishmeal and oil in industrial-scale factories located on the west coast, whereas some sardine are canned or frozen for human consumption or as pet food or used as bait. Most of the anchovy catch is taken inshore off the west and south-west coasts, and is made up mainly of recruits of around 6 months old that are migrating from the west coast nursery grounds to the spawning grounds on the south coast. Catches of sardine have been made off both the west and south coasts, but in recent years the sardine population has shown an eastward shift and catches are now taken almost entirely off the south coast.
+
==Applying the Ecosystem Approach to the South African West Coast lobster fishery==
  
It is estimated that the annual value of pelagic landings for the period 2001 - 2004 was approximately €82 million. The industry provides employment to approximately 4 500 full-time personnel, 2 500 seasonal workers and more than 700 fishersThe support service industries support a further 2 400 indirect jobs.   
+
In implementing the EAMR in South Africa a range of indicators, issues, technical management approaches and potential for implementation are identified for each fishery.  Each issue is classified and prioritised according to risk levels. The table below provides some examples of how the EAMR is being applied in the South African West Coast rock lobster fisheryFor a detailed list of all the ecological issues considered in this fishery, please see: [http://www.eur-oceans.org/KTU www.eur-oceans.org/KTU]Examples of the application of the [[Ecosystem Approach to the South African small pelagic fishery | EAMR to the fisheries for small pelagic fish (sardine and anchovy)]] and the [[Ecosystem Approach to the South African hake fishery | South African hake fishery]] are also available on the website.
  
Management of the pelagic fishery is via an operational management procedure that aims to achieve an optimal trade-off between maximising overall catches of sardine and anchovy and minimising risk of resource collapse. Because anchovy and sardine school together as juveniles, directed fishing on anchovy recruits results in a [[bycatch]] of juvenile sardine, hence catches of the two species cannot be maximised simultaneously. Separate total allowable catches are set for anchovy and sardine, in addition to a total allowable bycatch set for juvenile sardine taken in anchovy-directed fishing. Additionally, a precautionary upper catch limit is set for round herring.
 
  
==Applying the Ecosystem Approach to the South African small pelagics fishery==
+
{|valign=top border="1" cellspacing="0" Width="760" align="center" cellpadding="4"
 +
|+style= "align:left"|Table of Examples
 +
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px; width: 130px" | The Issue
 +
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px; width: 120px" |Indicators
 +
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px; width: 220px" |Research Approaches
 +
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px; width: 200px" |Technical Management
 +
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px; width: 80px" |Implementation
 +
|- border="0" valign="top"
 +
|'''Trophic influences
 +
(interactions with urchins and abalone) of large-scale movements of West Coast rock lobster (hereafter referred to as lobster)'''
 +
|Spawner-biomass estimates for lobster and abalone; indicators of trophic interaction between urchins, abalone and lobster; benthic community structure
 +
|Independent assessments and optimal parameter values (OMPs) for both lobster and abalone; benthic community surveys have been initiated; continue annual fishery-independent abalone and lobster surveys
  
In implementing the EAMR in South Africa a range of indicators, issues, technical management approaches and potential for implementation are identified for each fishery.  Each issue is classified and prioritised according to risk levels.  The table below provides some examples of how the EAMR is being applied in the South African small pelagic fishery.  For a detailed list of all the ecological issues considered in this fishery, please see the additional tables provided on: [http://www.eur-oceans.org/KTU www.eur-oceans.org/KTU].  Examples of the application of the EAMR to the fisheries for the South African hake fishery and the West Coast rock lobster fishery are also available on the website.
+
'''Future:''' research processes involved in interactions between lobsters and benthic organisms, particularly urchins, abalone and octopus; model trophic interactions and benthic community dynamics; intensify benthic surveys; investigate the driving forces of the lobster population shift
 +
|Manage the lobster resource to retain potential for fisheries of impacted species such as abalone
  
 +
'''Future:''' develop joint management procedure for lobster and abalone east of Cape Hangklip; take into account trophic interactions and models in management; maintain or achieve 25% spawner-biomass threshold limit for both lobster and abalone (threshold abalone abundance required to stimulate spawning and ensure reproductive success); curtail poaching of both lobster and abalone
 +
 +
|Fair potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
 +
|-border="0" valign="top"
 +
|'''Fisheries and management implications of southward and eastward shifts in lobster distribution (caused by longterm climate change)'''
 +
|Measures of abundance perarea, within accepted statistical threshold (abundance, growth, sizestructure, sex structure); [[Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) | CPUE]]
 +
|Continue annual offshore and inshore Fishery Independent Monitoring Survey (FIMS); continue monitoring of commercial catches
  
{|style="text-align: top" border="1" cellspacing="0"
+
'''Future:''' investigate factors and mechanisms causing distributional shift in lobster
|+style= "align:left"|Table of Exemples
+
|[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]] are in place and efficacy has been evaluated; re-evaluate the MPAs and possibly reposition if necessary
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px" | The Issue
 
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px" |Indicators
 
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px" |Research Approaches
 
!width=330px style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px" |Technical Management
 
!style="background: #006699; color: #FFFFFF;border: 0px" |Implementation
 
|-border="0"
 
|'''Impacts of removal of forage fish on species bound to breeding sites on land (i.e. seabirds)'''
 
|Bird population sizes; breeding success (fledgling weight, fledglings raised per breeding pair, breeding proportion); seabird diet composition; spatial indicators(e.g. overlap of seabird foraging and pelagic fisheries)
 
|Routine monitoring of seabird colonies; satellite tracking to assess foraging ranges; minimum realistic models; spatialised models of pelagic fish around seabird colonies
 
Quantify and formalise the link between the pelagic fishery and seabirds; quantify functional responses of seabirds to small pelagic prey and identify thresholds below which there are serious negative implications for seabirds
 
|Avoid populations falling below levels that exceed limit reference points according to IUCN conservation criteria by reducing TACs or closing areas within foraging ranges; allow sufficient escapement of forage fish for predators; avoid threshold levels of pelagic fish below which the implications for seabirds are detrimental
 
  
|align="top" |Good potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
+
Assess feasibility of moving to a spatially disaggregated model for the optimal parameter values
|-border="0"
 
|align="top" |'''Poor understanding of decadal scale fluctuations in abundance of small pelagic fish and thus availability to fisheries'''
 
|Biomass; catches; trophic replacement index; diet of predators (e.g. seabirds)
 
|Develop indicators to track ecosystem changes; hindcast to pre-fishing period to provide information on ecosystem effects of fishing; develop expert system models to detect ecosystem changes (using indicators); compare ecosystem functioning over different periods and between systems; quantify trophic controls (bottom-up,top-down, wasp-waist); time-series analyses
 
|Manage catches within productivity states/regimes, as identified using indicators of ecosystem state/ change
 
  
'''Benefit''': optimisation of catches while keeping the risk low that catch levels will accelerate stock decline
 
 
|Fair potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
 
|Fair potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
 +
|-border="0" valign="top"
 +
|'''Damage caused to benthic biota (hard corals, bryozoans, sea fans) by lobster fishing gear'''
 +
|Benthic community composition; species diversity; visible damage
 +
|'''Future:''' undertake experiments and monitoring (compare fished and unfished areas) to assess damage by fishing gear to benthic biota.  If damage is caused, investigate alternative trap designs
 +
|Implement alternative trap designs and closed areas to minimise damage
 +
|Good potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
 
|}
 
|}
  
Line 51: Line 61:
 
<div style="border:1px solid #000000; background-color:#FFD700; padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; font-size:100%">
 
<div style="border:1px solid #000000; background-color:#FFD700; padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; font-size:100%">
  
'''Action points'''
+
==Action points==
  
South Africa has chosen a progressive and iterative strategy regarding the implementation of the EAMR, starting from identifying relevant issues and applying existing scientific knowledge, expertise and assessment. In its initial stage, for each important fishery the following needs are considered. These needs are common to the application of the EAMR in other areas:  
+
South Africa has chosen a progressive and iterative strategy regarding the implementation of the EAMR, starting from  
 +
identifying relevant issues and applying existing scientific knowledge, expertise and assessment. In its initial stage, for  
 +
each important fishery the following needs are considered. These needs are common to the application of the EAMR  
 +
in other areas:  
 
* Identify the current status of the resource(s);  
 
* Identify the current status of the resource(s);  
 
* Examine concerns regarding single-species, community or ecosystem based approaches (e.g. spatial issues or species interactions not taken into account in current management), and express them as ecosystem objectives;
 
* Examine concerns regarding single-species, community or ecosystem based approaches (e.g. spatial issues or species interactions not taken into account in current management), and express them as ecosystem objectives;
Line 67: Line 80:
 
[[Image:Coastal.mng.SouthAfrica.PNG|80px|]]
 
[[Image:Coastal.mng.SouthAfrica.PNG|80px|]]
 
|abstract=
 
|abstract=
<div style="font-size:95%;color: #000000;padding:0em 0em 0em 0em">This Wiki page was adapted from [http://www.eur-oceans.eu/ EUR-OCEANS]Fact Sheet no. 3 (''supplement 1'') composed by Lynne Shannon and Rob Leslie from Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa. This approach has been undertaken as part of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME, see [http://www.bclme.org www.bclme.org]) project to explore the  
+
<div style="font-size:95%;color: #000000;padding:0em 0em 0em 0em">This Wiki page was adapted from [http://www.eur-oceans.eu/?q=node/18112 EUR-OCEANS Fact Sheet no. 3 (''supplement 1'')] composed by Lynne Shannon and Rob Leslie from Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa. This approach has been undertaken as part of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME, see [http://www.bclme.org www.bclme.org]) project to explore the  
 
feasibility of an Ecosystem Approach to Fishing in the Benguela region.  For further information please contact: Lynne Shannon (Lshannon@deat.gov.za), or go to [http://www.eur-oceans.org/KTU www.eur-oceans.org/KTU] for background papers, additional case studies and in depth examination of issues raised. Other applications of the EAMR in the EUR-OCEANS region will be available in future Fact Sheets. </div>}}
 
feasibility of an Ecosystem Approach to Fishing in the Benguela region.  For further information please contact: Lynne Shannon (Lshannon@deat.gov.za), or go to [http://www.eur-oceans.org/KTU www.eur-oceans.org/KTU] for background papers, additional case studies and in depth examination of issues raised. Other applications of the EAMR in the EUR-OCEANS region will be available in future Fact Sheets. </div>}}
  
Line 79: Line 92:
 
{|  
 
{|  
 
|}
 
|}
{{author
+
[[Category:Euroceans fact sheets]]
|AuthorID=576
 
|AuthorFullName=Souza Dias, Francisco
 
|AuthorName=Francisco}}
 

Latest revision as of 15:51, 26 December 2020

Background

Diagram to show the different stages in the EAMR approach
West Coast rock lobster, Jasus lalandii. Photograph: Stephen Brouwer, Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa.

The application of the Ecosystem Approach to Marine Resources (EAMR) is a priority for the EUR-OCEANS network. EAMR frameworks are adaptive, incremental and geographically specific. In this Fact Sheet we report on the implementation of the EAMR to the small pelagics fishery off South Africa. The EAMR requires a sound scientific base to provide the means of assessing the ecosystem effects of fishing as well as the effectiveness of the various management strategies adopted in response to identified risks or effects. Ecological Risk Assessment was adopted in South Africa as a means of identifying and prioritising problems associated with selected fisheries in the Benguela region. To illustrate how South Africa is moving toward an EAMR from the basis of biological research, selected ecological issues raised for the purse seine fishery for small pelagics (anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus and sardine Sardinops sagax) are examined. The indicators required to address these issues are identified and the scientific research or monitoring studies necessary to inform these indicators are proposed. Biological or catch data are synthesised into useful indicators that enable changes and ecosystem responses to be followed in a manageable and formal way (e.g. through specific management measures). Technical management measures that may contribute to solving the issues are also suggested. This will contribute to a management strategy that optimizes social and economic benefits without compromising the integrity and sustainability of the resource and its supporting ecosystem.

The West Coast lobster fishery

Currently, West Coast rock lobsters are exploited both commercially and recreationally. The commercial fishery, which started in the late 19th century, now consists of offshore (> 30m depth) and nearshore sectors (<30m depth). Fishing is mainly by traps, deployed from vessels in water >30m, or by hoopnets in shallow water (<30m), deployed from dinghies. Participation in the recreational fishery is by permit only (about 65 000 permits sold annually), and lobsters must be caught between mid-November and April by diving without artificial breathing apparatus or by hoopnets from shore or small vessels. The fishery is currently valued in excess of €32.5 million per annum and provides seasonal employment for approximately of 4 000 people.

The fishery is subdivided into different areas that are managed by an annual Total Allowable Catch (TAC) set using an operational management procedure, minimum size limit, closed fishing season and fishing zones. Management aims to optimise the economic and social benefits of the West Coast rock lobster resource without compromising the long-term biological sustainability of the exploited stock. A management strategy aimed at achieving a 20% increase in resource biomass (>75mm carapace length) between 1996 and 2006 has been adopted. The most recent assessments (2003) suggest that the biomass level is currently about 10% above the 1996 level. From 2006 onwards, the West Coast rock lobster TAC recommendation includes a state of the environment / ecosystem report, to highlight important environmental issues or concerns.

A sharp decline in somatic (body) growth rates at the end of the 1980s resulted in reduced recruitment to the fishery, although the cause of the decline is still not clearly understood. As a result of poor catches of lobster of legal size and concerns regarding increased discard mortality owing to increased handling of undersized lobsters, the minimum size limit was reduced in the early 1990s and has remained unchanged since. During that period, the total allowable catch was decreased and following a recovery of the stock, has since been increased.

Applying the Ecosystem Approach to the South African West Coast lobster fishery

In implementing the EAMR in South Africa a range of indicators, issues, technical management approaches and potential for implementation are identified for each fishery. Each issue is classified and prioritised according to risk levels. The table below provides some examples of how the EAMR is being applied in the South African West Coast rock lobster fishery. For a detailed list of all the ecological issues considered in this fishery, please see: www.eur-oceans.org/KTU. Examples of the application of the EAMR to the fisheries for small pelagic fish (sardine and anchovy) and the South African hake fishery are also available on the website.


Table of Examples
The Issue Indicators Research Approaches Technical Management Implementation
Trophic influences

(interactions with urchins and abalone) of large-scale movements of West Coast rock lobster (hereafter referred to as lobster)

Spawner-biomass estimates for lobster and abalone; indicators of trophic interaction between urchins, abalone and lobster; benthic community structure Independent assessments and optimal parameter values (OMPs) for both lobster and abalone; benthic community surveys have been initiated; continue annual fishery-independent abalone and lobster surveys

Future: research processes involved in interactions between lobsters and benthic organisms, particularly urchins, abalone and octopus; model trophic interactions and benthic community dynamics; intensify benthic surveys; investigate the driving forces of the lobster population shift

Manage the lobster resource to retain potential for fisheries of impacted species such as abalone

Future: develop joint management procedure for lobster and abalone east of Cape Hangklip; take into account trophic interactions and models in management; maintain or achieve 25% spawner-biomass threshold limit for both lobster and abalone (threshold abalone abundance required to stimulate spawning and ensure reproductive success); curtail poaching of both lobster and abalone

Fair potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
Fisheries and management implications of southward and eastward shifts in lobster distribution (caused by longterm climate change) Measures of abundance perarea, within accepted statistical threshold (abundance, growth, sizestructure, sex structure); CPUE Continue annual offshore and inshore Fishery Independent Monitoring Survey (FIMS); continue monitoring of commercial catches

Future: investigate factors and mechanisms causing distributional shift in lobster

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are in place and efficacy has been evaluated; re-evaluate the MPAs and possibly reposition if necessary

Assess feasibility of moving to a spatially disaggregated model for the optimal parameter values

Fair potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage
Damage caused to benthic biota (hard corals, bryozoans, sea fans) by lobster fishing gear Benthic community composition; species diversity; visible damage Future: undertake experiments and monitoring (compare fished and unfished areas) to assess damage by fishing gear to benthic biota. If damage is caused, investigate alternative trap designs Implement alternative trap designs and closed areas to minimise damage Good potential for implementation of management response/ability to manage


Action points

South Africa has chosen a progressive and iterative strategy regarding the implementation of the EAMR, starting from identifying relevant issues and applying existing scientific knowledge, expertise and assessment. In its initial stage, for each important fishery the following needs are considered. These needs are common to the application of the EAMR in other areas:

  • Identify the current status of the resource(s);
  • Examine concerns regarding single-species, community or ecosystem based approaches (e.g. spatial issues or species interactions not taken into account in current management), and express them as ecosystem objectives;
  • Identify indicators in support of these objectives;
  • Translate ecosystem indicators into decision criteria (e.g. through definition of limit reference points);
  • Identify research needs;
  • Develop management options and measures to be taken with stakeholders participation; and
  • Develop evaluation criteria for adopted management measures.
Coastal.mng.SouthAfrica.PNG
This Wiki page was adapted from EUR-OCEANS Fact Sheet no. 3 (supplement 1) composed by Lynne Shannon and Rob Leslie from Marine and Coastal Management, South Africa. This approach has been undertaken as part of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME, see www.bclme.org) project to explore the feasibility of an Ecosystem Approach to Fishing in the Benguela region. For further information please contact: Lynne Shannon (Lshannon@deat.gov.za), or go to www.eur-oceans.org/KTU for background papers, additional case studies and in depth examination of issues raised. Other applications of the EAMR in the EUR-OCEANS region will be available in future Fact Sheets.

Fact Sheet by: EUR-OCEANS Knowledge Transfer Unit, hosted by the GLOBEC IPO at Plymouth Marine Laboratory. For further information contact, Jessica Heard: jessh@pml.ac.uk or visit the Website: www.eur-oceans.org/KTU