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===Introduction===
 
===Introduction===
To understand the role and effects of trace elements and their species in marine  
+
To understand the role and effects of trace elements and their species in marine ecosystems sensitive techniques are necessary to monitor their distribution between different environmental compartments. Since the beginning of industrialisation, anthrophogenic activities such as smelting, energy production, traffic, corrosion processes and landfill, and natural processes such as alteration, leaching or volcanism both influenced the specific distribution of trace elements within the marine environment.
 +
[[Image:Proefrock_1.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 1''': Average matrix composition of 1 kg seawater (values taken from Grasshoff et al., 1999<ref name="G99">Grasshoff, K., Ehrhardt, M., Kremling K. (1999). Methods of seawater analysis, Verlag Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 1999, ISBN 9783527295890.</ref>).]]
 +
Even though the element concentrations in the water phase are relatively low, as indicated in Fig. 1, significantly increased concentrations at higher levels of the food chain can be observed due to biomagnification effects. Especially top predators such as marine mammals are influenced, and different metal related effects on their health status have been recently investigated (Kakuschke et al., 2005<ref name="Ka05">Kakuschke, A., Valentine-Thon, E., Griesel, S., Fonfara, S., Siebert, U. & Prange, A. (2005). The immunological impact of metals in Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) of the North Sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 39 (19), 7568-7575.</ref>). Therefore, precise information on the pattern of trace elements within the ocean as well as their concentration in selected animal species is of great importance to understand the related biological effects.[[Image:Proefrock_2.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 2''':Overview of the ICP-MS detectable elements within the periodic table.]]
  
ecosystems sensitive techniques are necessary to monitor their distribution
 
  
between different environmental compartments. Since the beginning of
+
[[Image:Proefrock_3.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 3''': Environmental samples such as seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex mixtures. Often they contain a few highly abundant elements, which interfere with the sensitive determination of the remaining less concentrated elements. Different isobaric polyatomic ions are formed in an argon plasma, which interfere with the determination of various elements. The red font indicates interferences due to a sea water matrix.]]
 
 
industrialisation, anthrophogenic activities such as smelting, energy production,
 
 
 
traffic, corrosion processes and landfill, and natural processes such as
 
 
 
alteration, leaching or volcanism both influenced the specific distribution of
 
 
 
trace elements within the marine environment.
 
[[Image:Proefrock_1.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 1''': Average matrix composition of
 
 
 
1 kg seawater (values taken from Grasshoff et al., 1999).]]
 
Even though the element concentrations in the water phase are relatively low, as
 
 
 
indicated in Fig. 1, significantly increased concentrations at higher levels of
 
 
 
the food chain can be observed due to biomagnification effects. Especially top
 
 
 
predators such as marine mammals are influenced, and different metal related
 
 
 
effects on their health status have been recently investigated (Kakuschke et al.,
 
 
 
2005<ref name="Ka05">Kakuschke, A., Valentine-Thon, E., Griesel, S., Fonfara, S.,
 
 
 
Siebert, U. & Prange, A. (2005). The immunological impact of metals in Harbor
 
 
 
Seals (Phoca vitulina) of the North Sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 39
 
 
 
(19), 7568-7575.</ref>). Therefore, precise information on the pattern of trace
 
 
 
elements within the ocean as well as their concentration in selected animal
 
 
 
species is of great importance to understand the related biological
 
 
 
effects.[[Image:Proefrock_2.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 2''':Overview of the ICP-MS
 
 
 
detectable elements within the periodic table.]]
 
 
 
 
 
[[Image:Proefrock_3.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 3''': Environmental samples such as  
 
 
 
seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex mixtures. Often they contain a  
 
 
 
few highly abundant elements, which interfere with the sensitive determination of  
 
 
 
the remaining less concentrated elements. Different isobaric polyatomic ions are  
 
 
 
formed in an argon plasma, which interfere with the determination of various  
 
 
 
elements. The red font indicates interferences due to a sea water matrix.]]
 
 
===Challenges===
 
===Challenges===
Environmental samples such as seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex  
+
Environmental samples such as seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex mixtures. Often, they contain a few highly abundant elements (g l<sup>-1</sup> level), which interfere with the sensitive determination of the remaining less concentrated elements (ng l<sup>-1</sup> level) (Fig. 3).
 
+
Established methodologies often require complex separation schemes to remove the interfering matrix compo- nents. Often, they are prone to errors and contamination, which leads to inaccurate results. Furthermore, most of them do not allow the simultaneous determination of a set of elements.
mixtures. Often, they contain a few highly abundant elements (g l-1 level), which  
 
 
 
interfere with the sensitive determination of the remaining less concentrated  
 
 
 
elements (ng l-1 level) (Fig. 3).
 
Established methodologies often require complex separation schemes to remove the  
 
 
 
interfering matrix compo- nents. Often, they are prone to errors and  
 
 
 
contamination, which leads to inaccurate results. Furthermore, most of them do  
 
 
 
not allow the simultaneous determination of a set of elements.
 
 
 
[[Image:Proefrock_4.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 4''': Schematic view of a
 
 
 
collision/reaction cell ICP-MS system used for trace element determination in the
 
 
 
marine environment. The collision/reaction cell allows a significant reduction of
 
  
polyatomic ions, which interfere with the sensitive determination of most  
+
[[Image:Proefrock_4.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 4''': Schematic view of a collision/reaction cell ICP-MS system used for trace element determination in the marine environment. The collision/reaction cell allows a significant reduction of polyatomic ions, which interfere with the sensitive determination of most elements due to gas phase reactions with hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) or helium (He).]]
 
 
elements due to gas phase reactions with hydrogen (H2) or helium (He).]]
 
 
===Methodology===
 
===Methodology===
To overcome these limitations, a method based on elemental mass spectrometry,  
+
To overcome these limitations, a method based on elemental mass spectrometry, namely the collision/reaction cell inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (CC-ICP-MS) has been developed (Fig. 4 and 5). It enables us to quantitatively determine a set of elements within a sample simultaneously (Leonhard et al., 2002<ref name="La02">Leonhard, P., Pepelnik, R., Prange, A., Yamada, N. & Yamada, T. (2002). Analysis of diluted sea- water at the ng L-1 level using an ICP-MS with an octopole reaction cell. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 17, 189-196.</ref>). Here, an inductively coupled argon plasma is used to dry and to destroy the sample matrix as well as to generate mainly singly charged element ions, which makes them detectable by mass spectrometry.   
 
+
[[Image:Proefrock_0.jpg|center]]
namely the collision/reaction cell inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry  
+
[[Image:Proefrock_5.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 5''': Schematic view of the function of a collision/reaction cell. Polyatomic ions are reduced due to their dissociation caused by collisions with the cell gas, while the analyte ions are transferred to the quadrupole mass filter.]]
 
+
As shown in Fig. 2, ICP-MS allows the determination of nearly all relevant elements present in the periodic table with outstanding sensitivity and accuracy (Fig. 6 and 7).
(CC-ICP-MS) has been developed (Fig. 4 and 5). It enables us to quantitatively  
 
 
 
determine a set of elements within a sample simultaneously (Leonhard et al.,  
 
 
 
2002<ref name="La02">Leonhard, P., Pepelnik, R., Prange, A., Yamada, N. & Yamada,  
 
 
 
T. (2002). Analysis of diluted sea- water at the ng L-1 level using an ICP-MS  
 
 
 
with an octopole reaction cell. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 17,  
 
 
 
189-196.</ref>). Here, an inductively coupled argon plasma is used to dry and to  
 
 
 
destroy the sample matrix as well as to generate mainly singly charged element  
 
 
 
ions, which makes them detectable by mass spectrometry.   
 
[[Image:Proefrock_5.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 5''': Schematic view of the function  
 
 
 
of a collision/reaction cell. Polyatomic ions are reduced due to their  
 
 
 
dissociation caused by collisions with the cell gas, while the analyte ions are  
 
 
 
transferred to the quadrupole mass filter.]]
 
As shown in Fig. 2, ICP-MS allows the determination of nearly all relevant  
 
 
 
elements present in the periodic table with outstanding sensitivity and accuracy  
 
 
 
(Fig. 6 and 7).
 
 
 
[[Image:Proefrock_6.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 6''': The developed methodology
 
 
 
allows the detection of element concentrations at trace levels in environmental
 
  
samples such as sea water. Instrumental detection limits down to the pg l-1 have  
+
[[Image:Proefrock_6.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 6''': The developed methodology allows the detection of element concentrations at trace levels in environmental samples such as sea water. Instrumental detection limits down to the pg l<sup>-1</sup> have been obtained in three different modes.]]
 
 
been obtained in three different modes.]]
 
 
===Application fields===
 
===Application fields===
 
Vertical profiles in the Baltic Sea
 
Vertical profiles in the Baltic Sea
Within an intercalibration exercise, the collision/reaction cell ICP-MS method  
+
Within an intercalibration exercise, the collision/reaction cell ICP-MS method has been compared with an analytical method for trace element determination in seawater, which is based on a complex chemical matrix separation strategy and atomic absorption spectro- scopy (AAS). For ICP-MS measurements the samples were only acidified and diluted ten times with ultra pure water. The results of both methods were in good agreement, which indicates the potential of the developed methodology for the fast and reliable multi-element analysis of seawater samples.   
 
+
[[Image:Proefrock_7.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 7''': The results obtained from the analysis of a certified sea water reference material (NASS 5) clearly demonstrate the potential of collision/reaction cell ICP-MS for the sensitive, reproducible and accurate multi-element determination of complex samples.]]
has been compared with an analytical method for trace element determination in  
 
 
 
seawater, which is based on a complex chemical matrix separation strategy and  
 
 
 
atomic absorption spectro- scopy (AAS). For ICP-MS measurements the samples were  
 
 
 
only acidified and diluted ten times with ultra pure water. The results of both  
 
 
 
methods were in good agreement, which indicates the potential of the developed  
 
 
 
methodology for the fast and reliable multi-element analysis of seawater samples.  
 
 
 
    
 
[[Image:Proefrock_7.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 7''': The results obtained from the  
 
 
 
analysis of a certified sea water reference material (NASS 5) clearly demonstrate  
 
 
 
the potential of collision/reaction cell ICP-MS for the sensitive, reproducible  
 
 
 
and accurate multi-element determination of complex samples.]]
 
 
===Metal body burdens in seals===
 
===Metal body burdens in seals===
Even though the original collision/reaction cell ICP-MS was developed for trace  
+
Even though the original collision/reaction cell ICP-MS was developed for trace element analysis of marine water samples, it is easily adapted to new tasks such as the determination of metal body burdens of marine mammals.
 
+
As part of the monitoring of the health status of marine mammals, trace element levels in blood and tissue samples are under investigation, using ICP-MS for a reliable multi-element screening.
element analysis of marine water samples, it is easily adapted to new tasks such  
+
The concentrations of selected elements were measured in fresh whole blood samples of 80 harbour seals, captured at three different locations of the German and Danish Wadden Sea.
 
+
[[Image:Proefrock_8.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 8''': Trace element determination in Baltic Sea water, sampled at the “Gotland Tief”. Method intercalibration between CC-ICP-MS and AAS with chemical matrix separation revealed comparable results.]]
as the determination of metal body burdens of marine mammals.
+
For essential elements, such as calcium, iron or zink, low variations in the concentration level (12-25%) were observed due to their homeostatic regulation. Also no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been observed, and the levels were in the same order of magnitude as in humans.
As part of the monitoring of the health status of marine mammals, trace element  
+
In contrast, the level of trace elements shows a much wider variation of 30-287%. [[Image:Proefrock_9.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 9''': The concentration of selected elements measured in blood samples of 80 seals reveals less variation in the concentration level of essential elements (RSD 12-25 %) due to their homeostatic regulation. Also, no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been observed. In contrast the level of trace elements show a much wider variation of 30-287%. Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary sources.]]Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary sources.
 
+
Furthermore, differences between sampling sites in the North Sea have been observed and could be explained by geographical variation of differently contaminated prey. In comparison with other trace elements, especially high arsenic concentrations have been observed (Griesel et al., 2008<ref name="Ga08">Griesel, S., Kakuschke, A., Siebert, U. &  Prange, A. (2008). Trace element concentrations in blood of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the Wadden Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 392 (2-3), 313-323. </ref>).
levels in blood and tissue samples are under investigation, using ICP-MS for a  
 
 
 
reliable multi-element screening.
 
The concentrations of selected elements were measured in fresh whole blood  
 
 
 
samples of 80 harbour seals, captured at three different locations of the German  
 
 
 
and Danish Wadden Sea.
 
[[Image:Proefrock_8.jpg|thumb|right|'''Figure 8''': Trace element determination  
 
 
 
in Baltic Sea water, sampled at the “Gotland Tief”. Method intercalibration  
 
 
 
between CC-ICP-MS and AAS with chemical matrix separation revealed comparable  
 
 
 
results.]]
 
For essential elements, such as calcium, iron or zink, low variations in the  
 
 
 
concentration level (12-25%) were observed due to their homeostatic regulation.  
 
 
 
Also no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been observed, and  
 
 
 
the levels were in the same order of magnitude as in humans.
 
In contrast, the level of trace elements shows a much wider variation of 30-287%.  
 
 
 
Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary sources.
 
Furthermore, differences between sampling sites in the North Sea have been  
 
 
 
observed and could be explained by geographical variation of differently  
 
 
 
contaminated prey. In comparison with other trace elements, especially high  
 
 
 
arsenic concentrations have been observed (Griesel et al., 2008<ref  
 
 
 
name="Ga08">Griesel, S., Kakuschke, A., Siebert, U. &  Prange, A. (2008). Trace  
 
  
element concentrations in blood of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the Wadden
 
  
Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 392 (2-3), 313-323. </ref>).
 
 
[[Image:Proefrock_9.jpg|thumb|left|'''Figure 9''': The concentration of selected
 
 
elements measured in blood samples of 80 seals reveals less variation in the
 
 
concentration level of essential elements (RSD 12-25 %) due to their homeostatic
 
 
regulation. Also, no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been
 
 
observed. In contrast the level of trace elements show a much wider variation of
 
 
30-287%. Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary
 
 
sources.]]
 
 
===Outlook===
 
===Outlook===
These examples show the potential of elemental mass spectrometry for the  
+
These examples show the potential of elemental mass spectrometry for the investigation of trace elements in the marine environment. Beside the amount of an element, also its chemical form (speciation) is of great importance, especially for its toxicity and, accordingly possible effects in the marine environment. CC-ICP-MS can be readily combined with chromatographic separation techniques allowing the investigation of relevant element species such as organotin, mercury or lead compounds.
  
investigation of trace elements in the marine environment. Beside the amount of
 
  
an element, also its chemical form (speciation) is of great importance,
+
==See also==
 +
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry Wikipedia article on mass spectrometry]
  
especially for its toxicity and, accordingly possible effects in the marine
 
 
environment. CC-ICP-MS can be readily combined with chromatographic separation
 
 
techniques allowing the investigation of relevant element species such as
 
 
organotin, mercury or lead compounds.
 
  
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
<references/>
+
<div style="margin-left:210px"><references/></div>
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
{{author
+
{{4Authors
  |AuthorID=16904
+
  |AuthorID1=16890
  |AuthorFullName= Kakuschke, Antje
+
  |AuthorFullName1= Pröfrock, Daniel
|AuthorName=Username}}
 
  
{{author
+
  |AuthorID2=16904
  |AuthorID=16904
+
  |AuthorFullName2= Kakuschke, Antje
  |AuthorFullName= Kakuschke, Antje
 
|AuthorName=Username}}
 
  
{{author
+
  |AuthorID3=16907
  |AuthorID=16904
+
  |AuthorFullName3= Griesel, Simone
  |AuthorFullName= Kakuschke, Antje
 
|AuthorName=Username}}
 
  
{{author
+
  |AuthorID4=16891
  |AuthorID=16904
+
  |AuthorFullName4= Pepelnik, Rudolf}}
  |AuthorFullName= Kakuschke, Antje
 
|AuthorName=Username}}
 
  
 
+
 
 
 
[[Category:Marine habitats and ecosystems]]
 
 
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]
 
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]
[[Category:Biological processes and organisms]]
+
[[Category:Coastal and marine observation and monitoring]]
 +
[[Category:Observation of chemical parameters]]

Latest revision as of 15:36, 9 September 2020

Introduction

To understand the role and effects of trace elements and their species in marine ecosystems sensitive techniques are necessary to monitor their distribution between different environmental compartments. Since the beginning of industrialisation, anthrophogenic activities such as smelting, energy production, traffic, corrosion processes and landfill, and natural processes such as alteration, leaching or volcanism both influenced the specific distribution of trace elements within the marine environment.

Figure 1: Average matrix composition of 1 kg seawater (values taken from Grasshoff et al., 1999[1]).
Even though the element concentrations in the water phase are relatively low, as indicated in Fig. 1, significantly increased concentrations at higher levels of the food chain can be observed due to biomagnification effects. Especially top predators such as marine mammals are influenced, and different metal related effects on their health status have been recently investigated (Kakuschke et al., 2005[2]). Therefore, precise information on the pattern of trace elements within the ocean as well as their concentration in selected animal species is of great importance to understand the related biological effects.
Figure 2:Overview of the ICP-MS detectable elements within the periodic table.


Figure 3: Environmental samples such as seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex mixtures. Often they contain a few highly abundant elements, which interfere with the sensitive determination of the remaining less concentrated elements. Different isobaric polyatomic ions are formed in an argon plasma, which interfere with the determination of various elements. The red font indicates interferences due to a sea water matrix.

Challenges

Environmental samples such as seawater, biological fluids or tissues are complex mixtures. Often, they contain a few highly abundant elements (g l-1 level), which interfere with the sensitive determination of the remaining less concentrated elements (ng l-1 level) (Fig. 3). Established methodologies often require complex separation schemes to remove the interfering matrix compo- nents. Often, they are prone to errors and contamination, which leads to inaccurate results. Furthermore, most of them do not allow the simultaneous determination of a set of elements.

Figure 4: Schematic view of a collision/reaction cell ICP-MS system used for trace element determination in the marine environment. The collision/reaction cell allows a significant reduction of polyatomic ions, which interfere with the sensitive determination of most elements due to gas phase reactions with hydrogen (H2) or helium (He).

Methodology

To overcome these limitations, a method based on elemental mass spectrometry, namely the collision/reaction cell inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (CC-ICP-MS) has been developed (Fig. 4 and 5). It enables us to quantitatively determine a set of elements within a sample simultaneously (Leonhard et al., 2002[3]). Here, an inductively coupled argon plasma is used to dry and to destroy the sample matrix as well as to generate mainly singly charged element ions, which makes them detectable by mass spectrometry.

Proefrock 0.jpg
Figure 5: Schematic view of the function of a collision/reaction cell. Polyatomic ions are reduced due to their dissociation caused by collisions with the cell gas, while the analyte ions are transferred to the quadrupole mass filter.

As shown in Fig. 2, ICP-MS allows the determination of nearly all relevant elements present in the periodic table with outstanding sensitivity and accuracy (Fig. 6 and 7).

Figure 6: The developed methodology allows the detection of element concentrations at trace levels in environmental samples such as sea water. Instrumental detection limits down to the pg l-1 have been obtained in three different modes.

Application fields

Vertical profiles in the Baltic Sea Within an intercalibration exercise, the collision/reaction cell ICP-MS method has been compared with an analytical method for trace element determination in seawater, which is based on a complex chemical matrix separation strategy and atomic absorption spectro- scopy (AAS). For ICP-MS measurements the samples were only acidified and diluted ten times with ultra pure water. The results of both methods were in good agreement, which indicates the potential of the developed methodology for the fast and reliable multi-element analysis of seawater samples.

Figure 7: The results obtained from the analysis of a certified sea water reference material (NASS 5) clearly demonstrate the potential of collision/reaction cell ICP-MS for the sensitive, reproducible and accurate multi-element determination of complex samples.

Metal body burdens in seals

Even though the original collision/reaction cell ICP-MS was developed for trace element analysis of marine water samples, it is easily adapted to new tasks such as the determination of metal body burdens of marine mammals. As part of the monitoring of the health status of marine mammals, trace element levels in blood and tissue samples are under investigation, using ICP-MS for a reliable multi-element screening. The concentrations of selected elements were measured in fresh whole blood samples of 80 harbour seals, captured at three different locations of the German and Danish Wadden Sea.

Figure 8: Trace element determination in Baltic Sea water, sampled at the “Gotland Tief”. Method intercalibration between CC-ICP-MS and AAS with chemical matrix separation revealed comparable results.

For essential elements, such as calcium, iron or zink, low variations in the concentration level (12-25%) were observed due to their homeostatic regulation. Also no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been observed, and the levels were in the same order of magnitude as in humans.

In contrast, the level of trace elements shows a much wider variation of 30-287%.
Figure 9: The concentration of selected elements measured in blood samples of 80 seals reveals less variation in the concentration level of essential elements (RSD 12-25 %) due to their homeostatic regulation. Also, no significant relation with gender, age or locality has been observed. In contrast the level of trace elements show a much wider variation of 30-287%. Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary sources.
Blood levels of these elements were more directly influenced by dietary sources.

Furthermore, differences between sampling sites in the North Sea have been observed and could be explained by geographical variation of differently contaminated prey. In comparison with other trace elements, especially high arsenic concentrations have been observed (Griesel et al., 2008[4]).


Outlook

These examples show the potential of elemental mass spectrometry for the investigation of trace elements in the marine environment. Beside the amount of an element, also its chemical form (speciation) is of great importance, especially for its toxicity and, accordingly possible effects in the marine environment. CC-ICP-MS can be readily combined with chromatographic separation techniques allowing the investigation of relevant element species such as organotin, mercury or lead compounds.


See also

Wikipedia article on mass spectrometry


References

  1. Grasshoff, K., Ehrhardt, M., Kremling K. (1999). Methods of seawater analysis, Verlag Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 1999, ISBN 9783527295890.
  2. Kakuschke, A., Valentine-Thon, E., Griesel, S., Fonfara, S., Siebert, U. & Prange, A. (2005). The immunological impact of metals in Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) of the North Sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 39 (19), 7568-7575.
  3. Leonhard, P., Pepelnik, R., Prange, A., Yamada, N. & Yamada, T. (2002). Analysis of diluted sea- water at the ng L-1 level using an ICP-MS with an octopole reaction cell. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 17, 189-196.
  4. Griesel, S., Kakuschke, A., Siebert, U. & Prange, A. (2008). Trace element concentrations in blood of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the Wadden Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 392 (2-3), 313-323.



The main authors of this article are Pröfrock, Daniel, Kakuschke, Antje, Griesel, Simone and Pepelnik, Rudolf
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.