https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&feed=atom&action=historyShore protection vegetation - Revision history2024-03-28T09:17:14ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=80515&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:24, 15 November 20232023-11-15T10:24:33Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 10:24, 15 November 2023</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l16" >Line 16:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>These functions increase the retention of sand volume of the upper beach and backshore during storms and high water levels. This sand also nourishes further aeolian inshore transport and increases the sand volume of the dunes behind.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>These functions increase the retention of sand volume of the upper beach and backshore during storms and high water levels. This sand also nourishes further aeolian inshore transport and increases the sand volume of the dunes behind.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The sand-binding function of vegetation is not only because roots retain the sand, but also because roots improve the soil structure, by adding  organic material (due to plant turnover and leaf litter), moisture (due to surface shading by plants), and by strengthening the sand aggregation function of microorganisms and fungi<ref name=F></ref>. Experiments show that vegetation increases the stability of dunes during wave attack (Silva et al., 2016<ref>Silva, R., Martinez, M.L., Oderiz, I., Mendoza, E. and Feagin, R.A. 2016. Response of vegetated dune–beach systems to storm conditions. Coastal Engineering 109: 53–62</ref>). However, vegetation is usually not strong enough to prevent beach and dune erosion under extreme storm conditions. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">It is </del>the sand mass of the entire dune complex <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that </del>should be large enough to <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">provide protection against flooding of the hinterland by preventing </del>breach of the dune belt (see [[Dune erosion]]). However, the presence of vegetation, the vegetation density, species present, and density and depth of the roots all assist in reducing the degree of scarping and dune erosion (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2020<ref> Davidson, S., Hesp, P.A., Miot da Silva, G. 2020. Controls on dune scarping. Progress in Physical Geography. PPG-19-140</ref>). Recolonization of eroded parts of the beach, dune scarps and foredunes by vegetation stimulates beach restoration<ref name=F></ref>. However, post-storm beach restoration depends <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">primarily </del>on sand supply from the surf zone to the beach by hydrodynamic processes, in particular wave-induced onshore sand transport and longshore drift (see [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Shoreface profile</del>]]). In the case <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">where there is </del>insufficient sand supply (beaches subjected to ongoing shoreline retreat), beach <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">restoration </del>requires artificial sand nourishment. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The </del>beach <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">width can also be restored by </del>dune <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">translation and </del>retreat (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018<ref name=DA> Davidson-Arnott, R., Hesp, P.A., Ollerhead, J., Walker, I., Bauer, B., Delgado-Fernandez, I. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2018. Sediment budget controls on foredune height: a comparison of simulation model results and field data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 1798-1810.  doi: 10.1002/esp.4354</ref>)<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, which may happen naturally unless the backshore </del>is a hard <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cliff </del>or <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">protected by a hard structure  </del>(McLachlan et al., 2018<ref name=MD>McLachlan, A. and Defeo, O. 2018. Coastal Dune Ecosystems and Dune–Beach Interactions. In The Ecology of Sandy Shores (Third Edition) 309-329. Academic Press</ref>). No important difference in vegetation type is observed between prograding and retreating coasts (Konlechner et al., 2019<ref>Konlechner, T.M., Kennedy, D.M., Cousens, R.D. and Woods, J.L.D. 2019.  Patterns of early-colonising species on eroding to prograding coasts; implications for foredune plant communities on retreating coastlines. Geomorphology 327: 404–416 </ref>), but rapidly retreating coasts do not display the typical vegetation community succession patterns (Bitton and Hesp, 2013<ref> Bitton, M. and Hesp, P.A. 2013. Vegetation dynamics on eroding to accreting beach-foredune systems, Florida Panhandle.  Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 1472-1480</ref>), and on some eroding coasts the final successional vegetation community may be adjacent to the shoreline.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The sand-binding function of vegetation is not only because roots retain the sand, but also because roots improve the soil structure, by adding  organic material (due to plant turnover and leaf litter), moisture (due to surface shading by plants), and by strengthening the sand aggregation function of microorganisms and fungi<ref name=F></ref>. Experiments show that vegetation increases the stability of dunes during wave attack (Silva et al., 2016<ref>Silva, R., Martinez, M.L., Oderiz, I., Mendoza, E. and Feagin, R.A. 2016. Response of vegetated dune–beach systems to storm conditions. Coastal Engineering 109: 53–62</ref>). However, vegetation is usually not strong enough to prevent beach and dune erosion under extreme storm conditions. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The strength of the dune belt to withstand severe storm conditions depends primarily on </ins>the sand mass of the entire dune complex <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">rather than on the vegetation. The sand mass </ins>should be large enough to <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">prevent </ins>breach of the dune belt <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and protect the hinterland against flooding </ins>(see [[Dune erosion]]). However, the presence of vegetation, the vegetation density, species present, and density and depth of the roots all assist in reducing the degree of scarping and dune erosion (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2020<ref> Davidson, S., Hesp, P.A., Miot da Silva, G. 2020. Controls on dune scarping. Progress in Physical Geography. PPG-19-140</ref>).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Recolonization of eroded parts of the beach, dune scarps and foredunes by vegetation stimulates beach restoration<ref name=F></ref>. However, post-storm beach restoration depends <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">also </ins>on sand supply from the surf zone to the beach by hydrodynamic processes, in particular wave-induced onshore sand transport and longshore drift (see [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Shoreline retreat and recovery</ins>]]). In the case <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of </ins>insufficient sand supply (beaches subjected to ongoing shoreline retreat), <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">restoration of the </ins>beach<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-dune complex </ins>requires artificial sand nourishment. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Without intervention, </ins>beach <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">erosion will induce </ins>dune retreat <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">while beach accretion will stimulate dune progradation </ins>(Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018<ref name=DA> Davidson-Arnott, R., Hesp, P.A., Ollerhead, J., Walker, I., Bauer, B., Delgado-Fernandez, I. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2018. Sediment budget controls on foredune height: a comparison of simulation model results and field data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 1798-1810.  doi: 10.1002/esp.4354</ref>)<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. This negative feedback of dune translation to changes in beach width (beach slope) </ins>is a <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">natural dynamic response if </ins>hard <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">manmade </ins>or <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">natural structures are absent </ins>(McLachlan et al., 2018<ref name=MD>McLachlan, A. and Defeo, O. 2018. Coastal Dune Ecosystems and Dune–Beach Interactions. In The Ecology of Sandy Shores (Third Edition) 309-329. Academic Press</ref>).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>No important difference in vegetation type is observed between prograding and retreating coasts (Konlechner et al., 2019<ref>Konlechner, T.M., Kennedy, D.M., Cousens, R.D. and Woods, J.L.D. 2019.  Patterns of early-colonising species on eroding to prograding coasts; implications for foredune plant communities on retreating coastlines. Geomorphology 327: 404–416 </ref>), but rapidly retreating coasts do not display the typical vegetation community succession patterns (Bitton and Hesp, 2013<ref> Bitton, M. and Hesp, P.A. 2013. Vegetation dynamics on eroding to accreting beach-foredune systems, Florida Panhandle.  Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 1472-1480</ref>), and on some eroding coasts the final successional vegetation community may be adjacent to the shoreline.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 51:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, [[overwash]]) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD/>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><ref name=P21>Pickart, A.J. 2021. Ammophila Invasion <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Ecology </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Dune Restoration </del>on the West Coast of North America. Diversity 13, 629</ref>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, [[overwash]]) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref>Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD/>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><ref name=P21>Pickart, A.J. 2021. Ammophila Invasion <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ecology </ins>and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dune restoration </ins>on the West Coast of North America. Diversity 13, 629</ref>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td></tr>
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<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 68:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Dune management==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Dune management==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Along many shores, dunes have a crucial function for protecting coastal settlements (or the low-lying hinterland) from flooding in case of extreme storm surges. If this protection is not sufficient, hard protection structures can be necessary to raise the protection function to the required level. However, hard protection structures modify the sand distribution along the coast, creating or aggravating erosion (see for example [[Human causes of coastal erosion]] and other Coastal Wiki articles on hard structures). Artificial sand nourishment avoids this problem, but is often a costly solution. Another option is to strengthen a coastal-defense dune through the incorporation of a hard concrete or rocky core (Oderiz et al., 2020<ref> Oderiz, I., Knochelmann, N., Silva, R., Feagin, R.A., Martínez, M.L. and Mendoza, E. 2020. Reinforcement of vegetated and unvegetated dunes by a rocky core: A viable alternative for dissipating waves and providing protection? Coastal Engineering 158, 103675</ref>). The need for engineering interventions can be reduced – generally not excluded, however – by stimulating natural dune building processes. This can be done with sand-trapping fences; fences stimulate dune growth in height, but not necessarily in volume (Nordstrom et al., 2012<ref name=N12>Nordstrom, K.A., Jackson, N.L., Freestone, A.L., Korotky, K.H. and Puleo, J.A. 2012. Effects of beach raking and sand fences on dune dimensions and morphology. Geomorphology 179: 106–115</ref>; Li and Sherman, 2015<ref>Li, B. and Sherman, D. J. 2015. Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review. Aeolian Research 17: 33-48</ref>; Itzkin et al., 2020<ref>Itzkin, M., Moore, L.J., Ruggiero, P. and Hacker, S.D. 2020. The effect of sand fencing on the</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Along many shores, dunes have a crucial function for protecting coastal settlements (or the low-lying hinterland) from flooding in case of extreme storm surges. If this protection is not sufficient, hard protection structures can be necessary to raise the protection function to the required level. However, hard protection structures modify the sand distribution along the coast, creating or aggravating erosion (see for example [[Human causes of coastal erosion]] and other Coastal Wiki articles on hard structures). Artificial sand nourishment avoids this problem, but is often a costly solution. Another option is to strengthen a coastal-defense dune through the incorporation of a hard concrete or rocky core (Oderiz et al., 2020<ref> Oderiz, I., Knochelmann, N., Silva, R., Feagin, R.A., Martínez, M.L. and Mendoza, E. 2020. Reinforcement of vegetated and unvegetated dunes by a rocky core: A viable alternative for dissipating waves and providing protection? Coastal Engineering 158, 103675</ref>). The need for engineering interventions can be reduced – generally not excluded, however – by stimulating natural dune building processes. This can be done with sand-trapping fences; fences stimulate dune growth in height, but not necessarily in volume (Nordstrom et al., 2012<ref name=N12>Nordstrom, K.A., Jackson, N.L., Freestone, A.L., Korotky, K.H. and Puleo, J.A. 2012. Effects of beach raking and sand fences on dune dimensions and morphology. Geomorphology 179: 106–115</ref>; Li and Sherman, 2015<ref>Li, B. and Sherman, D. J. 2015. Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review. Aeolian Research 17: 33-48</ref>; Itzkin et al., 2020<ref>Itzkin, M., Moore, L.J., Ruggiero, P. and Hacker, S.D. 2020. The effect of sand fencing on the</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>morphology of natural dune systems. Geomorphology 352, 106995</ref>). Compared to other options, dune reinforcement by stimulating natural vegetation growth or planting has many advantages: it is relatively inexpensive to implement and maintain, it offers the best resilience and it strengthens natural and scenic values, and ecosystem functioning<ref name=F></ref>. A <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">very </del>simple measure that stimulates the formation of incipient dunes is not to remove beach wrack; this will <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">enhance </del>the number of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dune crests </del>and size of swales <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that create topographic </del>variability and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">increase </del>the number and types of habitats for flora and fauna<ref name=N12/>. Dune <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">formation </del>can further be stimulated by planting species with broad upright stems in staggered formation to the prevailing wind direction (Charbonneau et al., 2021<ref>Charbonneau, B.R., Dohner, S.M., Wnek, J.P., Barber, D., Zarnetske, P. and Casper, B.B. 2021. Vegetation effects on coastal foredune initiation: Wind tunnel experiments and field validation for three dune-building plants. Geomorphology 378, 107594</ref>).</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>morphology of natural dune systems. Geomorphology 352, 106995</ref>).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Compared to other options, dune reinforcement by stimulating natural vegetation growth or planting has many advantages: it is relatively inexpensive to implement and maintain, it offers the best resilience and it strengthens natural and scenic values, and ecosystem functioning<ref name=F></ref>. A simple measure that stimulates the formation of incipient dunes is not to remove beach wrack; <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">evidence from the field suggests that </ins>this will <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">increase </ins>the number of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">incipient dunes </ins>and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the </ins>size of swales<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Topographic </ins>variability <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">will be enhanced </ins>and the number and types of habitats for flora and fauna <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">increased</ins><ref name=N12/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">>. </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Planting of sand-trapping vegetation stimulates dune growth, through increased net transfer of sand from the bare beach in front of the plantation. Dense vegetation promotes the development of high narrow dunes<ref>Hesp, P.A., Dong, Y., Cheng, H and Booth, J.L. 2019. Wind flow and sedimentation in artificial vegetation: Field and wind tunnel experiments. Geomorphology 337: 165–182</ref</ins>>. Dune <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">growth </ins>can further be stimulated by planting species with broad upright stems in staggered formation to the prevailing wind direction (Charbonneau et al., 2021<ref>Charbonneau, B.R., Dohner, S.M., Wnek, J.P., Barber, D., Zarnetske, P. and Casper, B.B. 2021. Vegetation effects on coastal foredune initiation: Wind tunnel experiments and field validation for three dune-building plants. Geomorphology 378, 107594</ref>). <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The total volume of trapped sand depends in the first place on the rate of wind-blown transport to the dune and on the total biomass and characteristics of the plants. The effectiveness of the vegetation decreases when plant growth cannot outpace the sand accumulation<ref>Derijckere, J., Strypsteen, G. and Rauwoens, P. 2023.  Early-stage development of an artificial dune with varying plant density and distribution. Geomorphology 437, 108806</ref>.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Lack of understanding - why certain species may or may not prosper under existing conditions - is an important issue in dune vegetation programs. It is most naturel to use native species in coastal vegetation (or revegetation) programs, and in some countries (EU, US) there are legal regulations in this regard. However, more effective dune-building species might be wanted in some cases (more effective in terms of sand fixation, dune-building, soil improvement, adaptation to local conditions, etc.). Introducing non-native species has not always been successful; <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">in some cases </del>the species <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">did </del>not thrive <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and </del>in <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">some </del>other cases the species propagation <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">became </del>invasive and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">altered </del>the entire dune flora (e.g. ''Ammophila'' introduction in California and New Zealand; Thinopyrum introduction in South Australia; ''Acacia'' introduction in South Africa <ref name=WP/>). The success of vegetation programs using native species is equally uncertain (Hanley et al., 2014<ref> Hanley, M.E., Hoggart, S.P.G., Simmonds, D.J., Bichot, A., Colangelo, M.A., Bozzeda, F., Heurtefeux, H., Ondiviela, B., Ostrowski, R., Recio, M., Trude, R., Zawadzka-Kahlau, E. and Thompson, R.C. 2014. Shifting sands? Coastal protection by sand banks, beaches, and dunes. Coast. Eng. 87: 136–146</ref>). Before introduction, one should find out why the species is not there yet and remove any obstacles that may be responsible for this. Experimental testing should be part of the vegetation programs. In general, introduction of a new species should be avoided.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Lack of understanding - why certain species may or may not prosper under existing conditions - is an important issue in dune vegetation programs. It is most naturel to use native species in coastal vegetation (or revegetation) programs, and in some countries (EU, US) there are legal regulations in this regard. However, more effective dune-building species might be wanted in some cases (more effective in terms of sand fixation, dune-building, soil improvement, adaptation to local conditions, etc.). Introducing non-native species has not always been successful; the species <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">may </ins>not thrive<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, while </ins>in other cases the species propagation <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">becomes </ins>invasive and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">alters </ins>the entire dune flora (e.g. ''Ammophila'' introduction in California and New Zealand; Thinopyrum introduction in South Australia; ''Acacia'' introduction in South Africa <ref name=WP/>). The success of vegetation programs using native species is equally uncertain (Hanley et al., 2014<ref> Hanley, M.E., Hoggart, S.P.G., Simmonds, D.J., Bichot, A., Colangelo, M.A., Bozzeda, F., Heurtefeux, H., Ondiviela, B., Ostrowski, R., Recio, M., Trude, R., Zawadzka-Kahlau, E. and Thompson, R.C. 2014. Shifting sands? Coastal protection by sand banks, beaches, and dunes. Coast. Eng. 87: 136–146</ref>). Before introduction, one should find out why the species is not there yet and remove any obstacles that may be responsible for this. Experimental testing should be part of the vegetation programs. In general, introduction of a new species should be avoided.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The causes for the degradation of dune vegetation are multiple. Common causes are<ref name=D> </ref>:</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The causes for the degradation of dune vegetation are multiple. Common causes are<ref name=D> </ref>:</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=80056&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:44, 24 February 20232023-02-24T20:44:59Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, overwash) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD/>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><ref name=P21>Pickart, A.J. 2021. Ammophila Invasion Ecology and Dune Restoration on the West Coast of North America. Diversity 13, 629</ref>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>overwash<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD/>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><ref name=P21>Pickart, A.J. 2021. Ammophila Invasion Ecology and Dune Restoration on the West Coast of North America. Diversity 13, 629</ref>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79891&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:55, 3 October 20222022-10-03T20:55:55Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 20:55, 3 October 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1" >Line 1:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Review</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Review</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Well-drained, poor, mobile sandy soils, calcareous preferred. Growth stimulated by sand burial (<1 m/year)<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Declines in absence of new </del>sand <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">supply</del>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Well-drained, poor, mobile sandy soils, calcareous preferred. Growth stimulated by sand burial (<1 m/year)<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">; ''Ammophila'' declines without active </ins>sand <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">deposition</ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Rhizomes spreading horizontally and vertically.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Rhizomes spreading horizontally and vertically<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Establishment from seed is  less common</ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Seedlings in dry sand with moist at about 10 cm below surface. Minimum planting depth about 30 cm. Period: late fall, winter, and early spring months; temperature between 0 and 15 ºC.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Seedlings in dry sand with moist at about 10 cm below surface. Minimum planting depth about 30 cm. Period: late fall, winter, and early spring months; temperature between 0 and 15 ºC.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Invasive species in some countries <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">where it inhibits </del>growth of native plants. Fixes nitrogen. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">In stabilized dunes, </del>Ammophila is replaced by other species<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>such as Festuca rubra (red fescue grass).</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Invasive species in some countries<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, inhibiting </ins>growth of native plants. Fixes nitrogen. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>Ammophila<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'' </ins>is replaced <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">in stabilized dunes </ins>by other species such as <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>Festuca rubra<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'' </ins>(red fescue grass).</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Anthemis maritima'' (Seaside Chamomile) [[Image:AnthemisMaritima.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Anthemis maritima'' (Seaside Chamomile) [[Image:AnthemisMaritima.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79890&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:10, 3 October 20222022-10-03T20:10:10Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 20:10, 3 October 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1" >Line 1:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 1:</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Review</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Review</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l98" >Line 98:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 99:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Ammophila arenaria'' (Marram grass, European beach grass) [[Image:AmmophilaArenaria.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Ammophila arenaria'' (Marram grass, European beach grass) [[Image:AmmophilaArenaria.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Pioneer species with great sand-binding and sand-trapping capacity. Initiates foredune growth on flat beaches. Roots extend one to several meters deep. Stimulates the development of high/steep foredunes <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">vulnerable to erosion and blow-outs</del><ref name=P21/>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Pioneer species with great sand-binding and sand-trapping capacity. Initiates foredune growth on flat beaches. Roots extend one to several meters deep. Stimulates the development of high/steep foredunes<ref name=P21/>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l280" >Line 280:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 281:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Panicum amarum''  (Bitter Panicum, Coastal Panicgrass) [[Image:PanicumAmarum.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Panicum amarum''  (Bitter Panicum, Coastal Panicgrass) [[Image:PanicumAmarum.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Stabilizer of semi-mobile dunes. Extensive fibrous root and rhizome system holds the sand in place.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Stabilizer of semi-mobile dunes. Extensive fibrous root and rhizome system holds the sand in place<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Tends to build narrow/steep foredunes<ref name=H19>Hacker, S.D., Jay, K.R., Cohn, N., Goldstein, E.B., Hovenga, P.A., Itzkin, M., Moore, L.J., Mostow, R.S., Mullins, E.V. and Ruggiero, P. 2019. Species-Specific Functional Morphology of Four US Atlantic Coast Dune Grasses: Biogeographic Implications for Dune Shape and Coastal Protection. Diversity 11, 82</ref></ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | USA South Atlantic and Gulf coast.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | USA South Atlantic and Gulf coast.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Mediterranean climate. Tolerates moderate saline overspray.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Mediterranean climate. Tolerates moderate saline overspray.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l380" >Line 380:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 381:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Uniola paniculata'' (Sea Oats) [[Image:UniolaPaniculata.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Uniola paniculata'' (Sea Oats) [[Image:UniolaPaniculata.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Beach/dune grass with good sand-binding and dune-building capacity. Slow initial settlement. Very persistent.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Beach/dune grass with good sand-binding and dune-building capacity. Slow initial settlement. Very persistent<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Tends to build narrow/steep foredunes<ref name=H19/></ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | USA South Atlantic and Gulf coast, Mexico.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | USA South Atlantic and Gulf coast, Mexico.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Mediterranean, subtropical climate. Once established, low water requirement and resistant to salt spray.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Mediterranean, subtropical climate. Once established, low water requirement and resistant to salt spray.   </div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79889&oldid=prevDronkers J at 19:51, 3 October 20222022-10-03T19:51:05Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 19:51, 3 October 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l47" >Line 47:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, overwash) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">><</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ref</del>>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(Barbour and Johnson, 1977</del><ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">)</del>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, overwash) (Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes') of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD/>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref name=P21>Pickart, A.J. 2021. Ammophila Invasion Ecology and Dune Restoration on the West Coast of North America. Diversity 13, 629</ref></ins>. Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l98" >Line 98:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 98:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|- </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Ammophila arenaria'' (Marram grass, European beach grass) [[Image:AmmophilaArenaria.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px;  text-align:center" | ''Ammophila arenaria'' (Marram grass, European beach grass) [[Image:AmmophilaArenaria.jpg|110px|center]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Pioneer species with great sand-binding and sand-trapping capacity. Initiates foredune growth on flat beaches. Roots extend one to several meters deep. Stimulates the development of high/steep foredunes vulnerable to erosion and blow-outs.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Pioneer species with great sand-binding and sand-trapping capacity. Initiates foredune growth on flat beaches. Roots extend one to several meters deep. Stimulates the development of high/steep foredunes vulnerable to erosion and blow-outs<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref name=P21/></ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Native to southern/western Europe. Introduced: N. America, S. Africa and Australia. A similar species ''Ammophila breviligulata'' (American beach grass) is native to N. America.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>| style="border:2px solid lightblue; font-size: 11px; text-align:center" | Resistant to frost and temperatures up to 50ºC. Tolerates moderate salt spray, drought and low water table.   </div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79224&oldid=prevDronkers J at 18:13, 23 August 20212021-08-23T18:13:53Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 18:13, 23 August 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l408" >Line 408:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Sand Dunes in Europe]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Sand Dunes in Europe]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">:[[Dune development]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Ecological enhancement of coastal protection structures]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Ecological enhancement of coastal protection structures]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 426:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Coastal protection]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Coastal protection]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[Category:Beaches]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Soft coastal interventions]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Soft coastal interventions]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79221&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:44, 22 August 20212021-08-22T10:44:37Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 10:44, 22 August 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l14" >Line 14:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 14:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># by decreasing wave runup, due to the frictional effect of stems and foliage;</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># by decreasing wave runup, due to the frictional effect of stems and foliage;</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># by decreasing sand loss by wave backwash, due to the effect of plant roots on sand aggregation and fixation.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># by decreasing sand loss by wave backwash, due to the effect of plant roots on sand aggregation and fixation.   </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>These functions <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">may </del>increase the retention of sand volume of the upper beach and backshore during storms and high water levels. This sand also nourishes further aeolian inshore transport and increases the sand volume of the dunes behind.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>These functions increase the retention of sand volume of the upper beach and backshore during storms and high water levels. This sand also nourishes further aeolian inshore transport and increases the sand volume of the dunes behind.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The sand-binding function of vegetation is not only because roots retain the sand, but also because roots improve the soil structure, by adding  organic material (due to plant turnover and leaf litter), moisture (due to surface shading by plants), and by strengthening the sand aggregation function of microorganisms and fungi<ref name=F></ref>. Experiments show that vegetation increases the stability of dunes during wave attack (Silva et al., 2016<ref>Silva, R., Martinez, M.L., Oderiz, I., Mendoza, E. and Feagin, R.A. 2016. Response of vegetated dune–beach systems to storm conditions. Coastal Engineering 109: 53–62</ref>). However, vegetation is usually not strong enough to prevent beach and dune erosion under extreme storm conditions. It is the sand mass of the entire dune complex that should be large enough to provide protection against flooding of the hinterland by preventing breach of the dune belt (see [[Dune erosion]]). However, the presence of vegetation, the vegetation density, species present, and density and depth of the roots all assist in reducing the degree of scarping and dune erosion (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2020<ref> Davidson, S., Hesp, P.A., Miot da Silva, G. 2020. Controls on dune scarping. Progress in Physical Geography. PPG-19-140</ref>). Recolonization of eroded parts of the beach, dune scarps and foredunes by vegetation stimulates beach restoration<ref name=F></ref>. However, post-storm beach restoration depends primarily on sand supply from the surf zone to the beach by hydrodynamic processes, in particular wave-induced onshore sand transport and longshore drift (see [[Shoreface profile]]). In the case where there is insufficient sand supply (beaches subjected to ongoing shoreline retreat), beach restoration requires artificial sand nourishment. The beach width can also be restored by dune translation and retreat (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018<ref name=DA> Davidson-Arnott, R., Hesp, P.A., Ollerhead, J., Walker, I., Bauer, B., Delgado-Fernandez, I. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2018. Sediment budget controls on foredune height: a comparison of simulation model results and field data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 1798-1810.  doi: 10.1002/esp.4354</ref>), which may happen naturally unless the backshore is a hard cliff or protected by a hard structure  (McLachlan et al., 2018<ref name=MD>McLachlan, A. and Defeo, O. 2018. Coastal Dune Ecosystems and Dune–Beach Interactions. In The Ecology of Sandy Shores (Third Edition) 309-329. Academic Press</ref>). No important difference in vegetation type is observed between prograding and retreating coasts (Konlechner et al., 2019<ref>Konlechner, T.M., Kennedy, D.M., Cousens, R.D. and Woods, J.L.D. 2019.  Patterns of early-colonising species on eroding to prograding coasts; implications for foredune plant communities on retreating coastlines. Geomorphology 327: 404–416 </ref>), but rapidly retreating coasts do not display the typical vegetation community succession patterns (Bitton and Hesp, 2013<ref> Bitton, M. and Hesp, P.A. 2013. Vegetation dynamics on eroding to accreting beach-foredune systems, Florida Panhandle.  Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 1472-1480</ref>), and on some eroding coasts the final successional vegetation community may be adjacent to the shoreline.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The sand-binding function of vegetation is not only because roots retain the sand, but also because roots improve the soil structure, by adding  organic material (due to plant turnover and leaf litter), moisture (due to surface shading by plants), and by strengthening the sand aggregation function of microorganisms and fungi<ref name=F></ref>. Experiments show that vegetation increases the stability of dunes during wave attack (Silva et al., 2016<ref>Silva, R., Martinez, M.L., Oderiz, I., Mendoza, E. and Feagin, R.A. 2016. Response of vegetated dune–beach systems to storm conditions. Coastal Engineering 109: 53–62</ref>). However, vegetation is usually not strong enough to prevent beach and dune erosion under extreme storm conditions. It is the sand mass of the entire dune complex that should be large enough to provide protection against flooding of the hinterland by preventing breach of the dune belt (see [[Dune erosion]]). However, the presence of vegetation, the vegetation density, species present, and density and depth of the roots all assist in reducing the degree of scarping and dune erosion (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2020<ref> Davidson, S., Hesp, P.A., Miot da Silva, G. 2020. Controls on dune scarping. Progress in Physical Geography. PPG-19-140</ref>). Recolonization of eroded parts of the beach, dune scarps and foredunes by vegetation stimulates beach restoration<ref name=F></ref>. However, post-storm beach restoration depends primarily on sand supply from the surf zone to the beach by hydrodynamic processes, in particular wave-induced onshore sand transport and longshore drift (see [[Shoreface profile]]). In the case where there is insufficient sand supply (beaches subjected to ongoing shoreline retreat), beach restoration requires artificial sand nourishment. The beach width can also be restored by dune translation and retreat (Davidson-Arnott et al., 2018<ref name=DA> Davidson-Arnott, R., Hesp, P.A., Ollerhead, J., Walker, I., Bauer, B., Delgado-Fernandez, I. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2018. Sediment budget controls on foredune height: a comparison of simulation model results and field data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43: 1798-1810.  doi: 10.1002/esp.4354</ref>), which may happen naturally unless the backshore is a hard cliff or protected by a hard structure  (McLachlan et al., 2018<ref name=MD>McLachlan, A. and Defeo, O. 2018. Coastal Dune Ecosystems and Dune–Beach Interactions. In The Ecology of Sandy Shores (Third Edition) 309-329. Academic Press</ref>). No important difference in vegetation type is observed between prograding and retreating coasts (Konlechner et al., 2019<ref>Konlechner, T.M., Kennedy, D.M., Cousens, R.D. and Woods, J.L.D. 2019.  Patterns of early-colonising species on eroding to prograding coasts; implications for foredune plant communities on retreating coastlines. Geomorphology 327: 404–416 </ref>), but rapidly retreating coasts do not display the typical vegetation community succession patterns (Bitton and Hesp, 2013<ref> Bitton, M. and Hesp, P.A. 2013. Vegetation dynamics on eroding to accreting beach-foredune systems, Florida Panhandle.  Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38: 1472-1480</ref>), and on some eroding coasts the final successional vegetation community may be adjacent to the shoreline.</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79138&oldid=prevDronkers J at 09:44, 30 July 20212021-07-30T09:44:31Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 09:44, 30 July 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In temperate climatic zones, wind and sand-catching grasses produce dunes with a stronger relief than dunes in warm climatic zones. On subtropical and tropical sandy coasts ''Spinifex littoreus'' and ''Scaevola plumieri'' contribute to dune-building, but creeping vegetation of the genera ''Ipomoea'' and ''Canavalia'' is often dominant in more tropical areas (Hesp, 2003<ref>Hesp, P.A. 2003. Coastal Dunes in the Tropics and Temperate Regions: Location, Formation, Morphology and Vegetation Processes. In: (Eds. Martínez M. L. and Psuty N. P.) Coastal Dunes; Ecology and Conservation. Springer</ref>).  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In temperate climatic zones, wind and sand-catching grasses produce dunes with a stronger relief than dunes in warm climatic zones. On subtropical and tropical sandy coasts ''Spinifex littoreus'' and ''Scaevola plumieri'' contribute to dune-building, but creeping vegetation of the genera ''Ipomoea'' and ''Canavalia'' is often dominant in more tropical areas (Hesp, 2003<ref>Hesp, P.A. 2003. Coastal Dunes in the Tropics and Temperate Regions: Location, Formation, Morphology and Vegetation Processes. In: (Eds. Martínez M. L. and Psuty N. P.) Coastal Dunes; Ecology and Conservation. Springer</ref>).  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In arid climates, ''Tamarix'' and ''Traganum'' can stabilize shifting sands <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and create </del>hummocky dunes<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, called nebkhas </del>(Hernandez-Cordero et al., 2018<ref name=H18>Hernandez‐Cordero, A. I., Hernandez‐Calvento, L., Hesp, P. A. and Perez‐Chacon, E. 2018. Geomorphological changes in an arid transgressive coastal dune field due to natural processes and human impacts. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43: 2167-2180</ref>).</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In arid climates, ''Tamarix'' and ''Traganum'' can stabilize shifting sands <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">by creating nebkhas that develop into </ins>hummocky dunes (Hernandez-Cordero et al., 2018<ref name=H18>Hernandez‐Cordero, A. I., Hernandez‐Calvento, L., Hesp, P. A. and Perez‐Chacon, E. 2018. Geomorphological changes in an arid transgressive coastal dune field due to natural processes and human impacts. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43: 2167-2180</ref>).</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79137&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:58, 29 July 20212021-07-29T20:58:46Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 20:58, 29 July 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l33" >Line 33:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 33:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exchange of sand between sea and land takes place in the shore zone above the mean HW line up to the foredune that is attacked by waves under heavy storm conditions. Most important for shore protection are therefore species that bind and accumulate sand in this zone; and the corresponding habitats are defined in the European Habitats Directive (Natura2000) as (see Fig. 1):   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exchange of sand between sea and land takes place in the shore zone above the mean HW line up to the foredune that is attacked by waves under heavy storm conditions. Most important for shore protection are therefore species that bind and accumulate sand in this zone; and the corresponding habitats are defined in the European Habitats Directive (Natura2000) as (see Fig. 1):   </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"># </del>Annual vegetation of drift lines (1210)</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:- </ins>Annual vegetation of drift lines (1210)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"># </del>Embryonic shifting dunes (2110)</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:- </ins>Embryonic shifting dunes (2110)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"># </del>Shifting dunes along the shoreline with ''Ammophila arenaria''  (2120)</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:- </ins>Shifting dunes along the shoreline with ''Ammophila arenaria''  (2120)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The latter zone is often designated as 'foredune zone', 'yellow dunes' or 'white dunes'. An overview of common species occurring in these habitats is presented in Table 1. Only species with a sand-binding or dune-building function are considered.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The latter zone is often designated as 'foredune zone', 'yellow dunes' or 'white dunes'. An overview of common species occurring in these habitats is presented in Table 1. Only species with a sand-binding or dune-building function are considered.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l44" >Line 44:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 44:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Embryo-dune zone===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Embryo-dune zone===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Dune formation starts high up on the dry beach or upper backshore. The development of embryo dunes (also known as incipient foredunes) is mainly due to plants with erect stems that are capable of capturing sand that is blown by the wind over the beach. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Most </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">these </del>plants are grasses such as ''Elymus'', ''Leymus'', ''Ammophilla'' (in cold/temperate climates), ''Spinifex'', ''Uniola'', ''Panicum'', ''Carex'' (in warm climates). ''Elymus'', ''Leymus'' and ''Spinifex'' are primary colonizers, whose growth is stimulated by sand burial. They are partially replaced by species that colonize the area after the development of an initial dune. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Dune </del>formation is also initiated by plants such as ''Acacia'', ''Tamarix'', ''Atriplex'' and ''Traganum'' (warm to hot, and arid climates). Note that dunes also occur on the margins of lakes and ponds, and so Willows and other species may constitute the pioneer species on lake margins where the adjacent water body comprises fresh water (e.g. for the Great Lakes<ref name=DA/>). Embryo dunes are further stabilized and developed by smaller plants that form dense communities. Species of the genera ''Honckenya'', ''Sporobulus'', ''Anthemis'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Medicago'', ''Eryngium'', ''Zygophyllum'' may be widespread on embryo dunes.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Dune formation starts high up on the dry beach or upper backshore. The development of embryo dunes (also known as incipient foredunes) is mainly due to plants with erect stems that are capable of capturing sand that is blown by the wind over the beach. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The sand accumulation around an individual plant or a group of plants is called a nebkha. Merger </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">nebkhas eventually leads to the formation of a continuous shore-parallel incipient foredune. Nebkha-accumulating </ins>plants are <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">mostly </ins>grasses such as ''Elymus'', ''Leymus'', ''Ammophilla'' (in cold/temperate climates), ''Spinifex'', ''Uniola'', ''Panicum'', ''Carex'' (in warm climates). ''Elymus'', ''Leymus'' and ''Spinifex'' are primary colonizers, whose growth is stimulated by sand burial. They are partially replaced by species that colonize the area after the development of an initial dune. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Embryo-dune </ins>formation is also initiated by plants such as ''Acacia'', ''Tamarix'', ''Atriplex'' and ''Traganum'' (warm to hot, and arid climates). Note that dunes also occur on the margins of lakes and ponds, and so Willows and other species may constitute the pioneer species on lake margins where the adjacent water body comprises fresh water (e.g. for the Great Lakes<ref name=DA/>). Embryo dunes are further stabilized and developed by smaller plants that form dense communities. Species of the genera ''Honckenya'', ''Sporobulus'', ''Anthemis'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Medicago'', ''Eryngium'', ''Zygophyllum'' may be widespread on embryo dunes.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Foredune zone===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The foredunes </del>(<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a.k.a. 'established foredunes'; </del>Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref>) of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD></ref>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity (Barbour and Johnson, 1977<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref>). Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Foredune formation results from ecogeomorphic interactions between plants, relief and aeolian and coastal processes (waves, overwash) </ins>(Hesp and Smyth, 2019<ref> Hesp, P.A. and Smyth, T.A.G. 2019. Anchored Dunes. In: I. Livingstone and A. Warren (Eds.), Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction: 157-178. Wiley Blackwell</ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">). The foredunes (a.k.a. 'established foredunes'</ins>) of non-vegetated coasts generally have a gentle slope, while vegetated coasts have a steeper foredune slope<ref name=MD></ref>. This holds in particular for dunes vegetated with ''Ammophila'', which is a very effective sand binder and dune builder that prevents downslope sand transport even on steep slopes. ''Ammophila arenaria'' and ''Ammophila breviligulata'' are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide. In some regions, ''Ammophila arenaria'' can be an aggressive invader, for example in California, where it replaces the native foredune vegetation, greatly reducing species diversity (Barbour and Johnson, 1977<ref>Barbour, M., and Johnson, A.F. 1977. Beach and dune. In Barbour, M. and J. Major (eds.), Terrestrial vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pages 223-270</ref>). Many other species also contribute to the stabilization and further development of foredunes by forming a dense vegetation cover. Sand-binding species common to foredunes in several regions around the world include the genera: ''Eryngium'', ''Euphorbia'', ''Carpobrotus'', ''Calystegia'', ''Acacia'', ''Westringia'', ''Oenothera'', ''Anthemis'', ''Ficinia'', ''Paspalum'', ''Casuarina'', ''Medicago'', ''Zygophyllum''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Muddy shores===</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Dune management==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Dune management==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Along many shores, dunes have a crucial function for protecting coastal settlements (or the low-lying hinterland) from flooding in case of extreme storm surges. If this protection is not sufficient, hard protection structures can be necessary to raise the protection function to the required level. However, hard protection structures modify the sand distribution along the coast, creating or aggravating erosion (see for example [[Human causes of coastal erosion]] and other Coastal Wiki articles on hard structures). Artificial sand nourishment avoids this problem, but is often a costly solution. Another option is to strengthen a coastal-defense dune through the incorporation of a hard concrete or rocky core (Oderiz et al., 2020<ref> Oderiz, I., Knochelmann, N., Silva, R., Feagin, R.A., Martínez, M.L. and Mendoza, E. 2020. Reinforcement of vegetated and unvegetated dunes by a rocky core: A viable alternative for dissipating waves and providing protection? Coastal Engineering 158, 103675</ref>). The need for engineering interventions can be reduced – generally not excluded, however – by stimulating natural dune building processes. This can be done with sand-trapping fences; fences stimulate dune growth in height, but not necessarily in volume (Nordstrom et al., 2012<ref name=N12>Nordstrom, K.A., Jackson, N.L., Freestone, A.L., Korotky, K.H. and Puleo, J.A. 2012. Effects of beach raking and sand fences on dune dimensions and morphology. Geomorphology 179: 106–115</ref>; Li and Sherman, 2015<ref>Li, B. and Sherman, D. J. 2015. Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review. Aeolian Research 17: 33-48</ref>; Itzkin et al., 2020<ref>Itzkin, M., Moore, L.J., Ruggiero, P. and Hacker, S.D. 2020. The effect of sand fencing on the</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Along many shores, dunes have a crucial function for protecting coastal settlements (or the low-lying hinterland) from flooding in case of extreme storm surges. If this protection is not sufficient, hard protection structures can be necessary to raise the protection function to the required level. However, hard protection structures modify the sand distribution along the coast, creating or aggravating erosion (see for example [[Human causes of coastal erosion]] and other Coastal Wiki articles on hard structures). Artificial sand nourishment avoids this problem, but is often a costly solution. Another option is to strengthen a coastal-defense dune through the incorporation of a hard concrete or rocky core (Oderiz et al., 2020<ref> Oderiz, I., Knochelmann, N., Silva, R., Feagin, R.A., Martínez, M.L. and Mendoza, E. 2020. Reinforcement of vegetated and unvegetated dunes by a rocky core: A viable alternative for dissipating waves and providing protection? Coastal Engineering 158, 103675</ref>). The need for engineering interventions can be reduced – generally not excluded, however – by stimulating natural dune building processes. This can be done with sand-trapping fences; fences stimulate dune growth in height, but not necessarily in volume (Nordstrom et al., 2012<ref name=N12>Nordstrom, K.A., Jackson, N.L., Freestone, A.L., Korotky, K.H. and Puleo, J.A. 2012. Effects of beach raking and sand fences on dune dimensions and morphology. Geomorphology 179: 106–115</ref>; Li and Sherman, 2015<ref>Li, B. and Sherman, D. J. 2015. Aerodynamics and morphodynamics of sand fences: A review. Aeolian Research 17: 33-48</ref>; Itzkin et al., 2020<ref>Itzkin, M., Moore, L.J., Ruggiero, P. and Hacker, S.D. 2020. The effect of sand fencing on the</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>morphology of natural dune systems. Geomorphology<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </del>352, 106995</ref>). Compared to other options, dune reinforcement by stimulating natural vegetation growth or planting has many advantages: it is relatively inexpensive to implement and maintain, it offers the best resilience and it strengthens natural and scenic values, and ecosystem functioning<ref name=F></ref>. A very simple measure that stimulates the formation of incipient dunes is not to remove beach wrack; this will enhance the number of dune crests and size of swales that create topographic variability and increase the number and types of habitats for flora and fauna<ref name=N12/>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>morphology of natural dune systems. Geomorphology 352, 106995</ref>). Compared to other options, dune reinforcement by stimulating natural vegetation growth or planting has many advantages: it is relatively inexpensive to implement and maintain, it offers the best resilience and it strengthens natural and scenic values, and ecosystem functioning<ref name=F></ref>. A very simple measure that stimulates the formation of incipient dunes is not to remove beach wrack; this will enhance the number of dune crests and size of swales that create topographic variability and increase the number and types of habitats for flora and fauna<ref name=N12/><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Dune formation can further be stimulated by planting species with broad upright stems in staggered formation to the prevailing wind direction (Charbonneau et al., 2021<ref>Charbonneau, B.R., Dohner, S.M., Wnek, J.P., Barber, D., Zarnetske, P. and Casper, B.B. 2021. Vegetation effects on coastal foredune initiation: Wind tunnel experiments and field validation for three dune-building plants. Geomorphology 378, 107594</ref>)</ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Lack of understanding - why certain species may or may not prosper under existing conditions - is an important issue in dune vegetation programs. It is most naturel to use native species in coastal vegetation (or revegetation) programs, and in some countries (EU, US) there are legal regulations in this regard. However, more effective dune-building species might be wanted in some cases (more effective in terms of sand fixation, dune-building, soil improvement, adaptation to local conditions, etc.). Introducing non-native species has not always been successful; in some cases the species did not thrive and in some other cases the species propagation became invasive and altered the entire dune flora (e.g. ''Ammophila'' introduction in California and New Zealand; Thinopyrum introduction in South Australia; ''Acacia'' introduction in South Africa <ref name=WP/>). The success of vegetation programs using native species is equally uncertain (Hanley et al., 2014<ref> Hanley, M.E., Hoggart, S.P.G., Simmonds, D.J., Bichot, A., Colangelo, M.A., Bozzeda, F., Heurtefeux, H., Ondiviela, B., Ostrowski, R., Recio, M., Trude, R., Zawadzka-Kahlau, E. and Thompson, R.C. 2014. Shifting sands? Coastal protection by sand banks, beaches, and dunes. Coast. Eng. 87: 136–146</ref>). Before introduction, one should find out why the species is not there yet and remove any obstacles that may be responsible for this. Experimental testing should be part of the vegetation programs. In general, introduction of a new species should be avoided.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Lack of understanding - why certain species may or may not prosper under existing conditions - is an important issue in dune vegetation programs. It is most naturel to use native species in coastal vegetation (or revegetation) programs, and in some countries (EU, US) there are legal regulations in this regard. However, more effective dune-building species might be wanted in some cases (more effective in terms of sand fixation, dune-building, soil improvement, adaptation to local conditions, etc.). Introducing non-native species has not always been successful; in some cases the species did not thrive and in some other cases the species propagation became invasive and altered the entire dune flora (e.g. ''Ammophila'' introduction in California and New Zealand; Thinopyrum introduction in South Australia; ''Acacia'' introduction in South Africa <ref name=WP/>). The success of vegetation programs using native species is equally uncertain (Hanley et al., 2014<ref> Hanley, M.E., Hoggart, S.P.G., Simmonds, D.J., Bichot, A., Colangelo, M.A., Bozzeda, F., Heurtefeux, H., Ondiviela, B., Ostrowski, R., Recio, M., Trude, R., Zawadzka-Kahlau, E. and Thompson, R.C. 2014. Shifting sands? Coastal protection by sand banks, beaches, and dunes. Coast. Eng. 87: 136–146</ref>). Before introduction, one should find out why the species is not there yet and remove any obstacles that may be responsible for this. Experimental testing should be part of the vegetation programs. In general, introduction of a new species should be avoided.</div></td></tr>
</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.coastalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Shore_protection_vegetation&diff=79042&oldid=prevDronkers J at 14:19, 23 April 20212021-04-23T14:19:34Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Sand Dunes in Europe]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Sand Dunes in Europe]]</div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers J