Proudman resonance and meteo tsunamis

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Definition of Meteo tsunamis:
Meteo tsunamis are long ocean surface oscillations generated by intense atmospheric disturbances travelling over the open sea.
This is the common definition for Meteo tsunamis, other definitions can be discussed in the article

The frequency band of meteo tsunamis corresponds to that of seismically generated tsunamis, which explains their naming. They are sometimes also called nonseismic sea-level oscillations at tsunami timescales (NSLOTTs). They are recorded on most continental shelves globally, where strong secondary amplification can occur due to shoaling or topographic resonance effects[1][2][3] (see Harbor resonance). Regionally, meteo tsunamis are known by different local names: rissaga (Spain’s Balearic Islands and Catalonia), abiki (Japan’s Nagasaki Bay), sciga (Adriatic), milghuba (Malta), marrobbio (Sicily), seebär (Baltic Sea)[4]. Amplification by Proudman resonance occurs when an atmospheric disturbance travels over large distances (hundred kilometers or more) at approximately the same speed as the propagation celerity of long ocean waves[5][6][7][8]. Although meteo tsunamis are only a minor component of the overall sea-level oscillations, they can cause sea-level extremes and flooding, especially when combined with higher tides and storm surges, on top of the increased mean sea levels[9]. In some cases they are also capable of generating strong rip currents[10].

Fig. 1. Meteo tsunami at Ciutadella (Menorca,Spain) on 15 September 2021. Red curve = atmospheric pressure perturbation, blue curve = harbor oscillation Ciutadella, green curve = mid-troposphere wind speed. The depth of the adjacent shelf sea is about 100 m and the water wave celerity about 30 m/s, comparable to the mid-tropospheric wind speed that advects the atmospheric pressure disturbances. The water level response to the atmospheric pressure perturbation is amplified by Proudman resonance on the shelf. The resonance period of the harbor is 10.5 minutes. The harbor oscillation is the compound effect of Proudman resonance and harbor resonance. Redrawn from Villalonga et al. (2024[11]).


Generation of meteo tsunamis

Local atmospheric pressure disturbances above open water generate wave motions at the water surface. Meteo tsunamis can be associated with atmospheric instabilities, squall lines and travelling pressure disturbances, sometimes linked to mid-tropospheric jet streams near the 500 hPa level[9]. The periods of meteo-induced water waves are typically in the range of a few minutes to a few hours, i.e. intermediate between wind waves and tidal waves. The amplitude of these waves is generally small (typically in the cm range) compared to wind waves and tidal waves. However, in some cases they can be strongly amplified when the pressure perturbation advances at a speed comparable to the propagation speed (celerity) of the surface waves in the water body. This amplification is known as Proudman resonance, after the scientist who first demonstrated this phenomenon[5]. When meteo-induced water waves are strongly amplified they are often called meteo tsunamis, because their period is in the same range where tsunamis caused by other phenomena occur, such as submarine earthquakes and landslides – see the article Tsunami. Various atmospheric processes can generate meteo tsunamis, for example frontal passages, gales, squalls, storms, orographic influence and tornados.

Not all meteo tsunamis are amplified by Proudman resonance. Strong typhoons can generate long surface oscillations of considerable amplitude when amplified by topographic resonance effects[12].

Examples of meteo tsunamis are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

Fig. 2. Amplification of meteo-induced wave motion due to a front of cold air (a 'polar outbreak') travelling southward across the North Sea. The amplification cannot be explained by shoaling, because the water depth decrease of about a factor of 3 over the path K13-HOH contributes an increase in wave height of only about 32% according to Green's law. From De Jong (2004[13]) with permission.

Proudman resonance

Whether the propagation speed [math]V[/math] of an atmospheric pressure disturbance is comparable to the celerity [math]c[/math] of long surface waves depends on the depth of the water body, which can be approximated by [math]c=\sqrt{gh}[/math], where [math]h[/math] is the local water depth and [math]g \approx 9.8 \, m s^{-2}[/math] the gravitational acceleration. In deep ocean water the wave propagation celerity is generally much greater (typically in the order of 200 m/s) than the speed of ordinary atmospheric pressure disturbances (typically in the order of 10-50 m/s). However, on continental shelves and in shallow marginal seas, the long-wave celerity can be comparable to the propagation speed of atmospheric disturbances, allowing Proudman resonance to occur. The mathematical derivation by Proudman is presented in the appendix.

Greenspan resonance

A surface wave induced by an atmospheric pressure perturbation can also be amplified by so-called Greenspan resonance. Greenspan resonance occurs when the atmospheric pressure disturbance travels along a sloping coastal shelf at a speed close to the propagation speed of an edge wave, resulting in resonant amplification of the edge wave. Edge waves are long waves trapped near the coast by refraction over the sloping seabed, with amplitudes decreasing offshore. Different edge waves (modes n =0, 1, 2, . ..) travel at speeds [math]c_n \approx (2n+1) \, \beta \, g \, T / (2 \pi)[/math], where [math]\beta[/math] is the shelf slope and [math]T[/math] the edge wave period. Meteo tsunamis have been observed along the southwest Australian coast which can be explained by Greenspan resonance, as the atmospheric pressure perturbation travels at a speed close to the speed of the first edge wave mode[14].


Harbor seiches

Fig. 3. Harbor seiche in Ciutadella Inlet (Menorca Island, Spain) generated by a meteo tsunami on 15 June 2006. Image from Montserrat et al. (2006[15]), Creative Commons Licence.

Proudman resonance can amplify the initial meteo-induced water wave by a factor 5-10 if the propagation speeds of the atmospheric disturbance and the water wave are on average about the same[15]. Even in this case the amplitude of the meteo tsunami will seldom exceed a few decimeters. However, further amplification can occur if the wave period is close to the resonance period of coastal topographic features, such as semi-enclosed bays and basins. Many harbors resonate at wave periods in the same range as the periods of meteo tsunamis, of the order of one minute period for small harbors and of the order of one hour for large harbors (the basic resonance period of an elongate harbor of length [math]L[/math] and depth [math]h[/math] is given by [math]4L/\sqrt{gh}[/math]). If the harbor resonance period and the wave period match, a further wave amplification with a factor 5-10 is possible[16]. Resonant harbor waves are called seiches. For a more detailed discussion of this phenomenon, the reader is referred to the article Harbor resonance. Harbor seiches can cause considerable damage to berthed vessels and harbor infrastructure (Fig. 3). Even small seiches can generate strong currents in narrow harbor entrance channels.


Appendix: A simple mathematical model of Proudman resonance

The simple model, first described by Proudman[5], considers the following idealised situation:

  • Continental shelf of uniform depth [math]h[/math],
  • The influence of friction, tide and earth's rotation are neglected.

The pressure disturbance is assumed uniform in [math]y[/math]-direction and moves without deformation in [math]x[/math]-direction with velocity [math]V[/math]. The disturbance is then given by [math]p=p_0 - g \rho f(x-Vt)[/math], where [math]\rho[/math] is water density and [math]g[/math] the gravitational acceleration. The shallow-water equations of motion read

[math]\Large\frac{\partial u}{\partial t}\normalsize + g \Large\frac{\partial \zeta}{\partial x}\normalsize = - \Large\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial p}{\partial x}\normalsize , \quad h\Large\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}\normalsize + \Large\frac{\partial \zeta}{\partial t}\normalsize = 0. \qquad (1)[/math].

Symbols are: [math]\zeta=[/math] sea surface elevation, [math]u=[/math] current velocity and [math]t=[/math] time

Elimination of [math]u[/math] gives the equation [math]\Large\frac{\partial^2 \zeta}{\partial t^2}\normalsize -gh\Large\frac{\partial^2 \zeta}{\partial x^2}\normalsize = -gh\Large\frac{\partial^2 }{\partial x^2} \normalsize f(x-Vt) . \qquad (2)[/math]

The general solution reads

[math]\zeta(x,t)=\zeta^{(1)}(x-ct)+ \zeta^{(2)}(x+ct)+ \zeta^{(3)}(x-Vt), \qquad \zeta^{(3)}=\Large\frac{f}{1-(V/c)^2}\normalsize , \quad c=\sqrt{gh} . \qquad (3)[/math]

The functions [math]\zeta^{(1)}[/math] and [math]\zeta^{(2)}[/math] are determined by the initial conditions [math]\zeta=0, u=0[/math] at [math]t=0[/math]. Evaluation of these conditions yields

[math]\zeta(x,t)=\Large\frac{1}{1-(V/c)^2}\normalsize \Big[ f(x-Vt) - \Large\frac{1}{2}\normalsize (1+\Large\frac{V}{c})\normalsize f(x-ct) - \Large\frac{1}{2}\normalsize (1-\Large\frac{V}{c})\normalsize f(x+ct) \Big] . \qquad (4)[/math]

If the propagation speed of the disturbance is close to the wave celerity, [math]V =c+\Delta c[/math], and if [math] t \Delta c[/math] is much smaller than the spatial scale [math]L[/math] of the pressure field, then the expression of [math]\zeta[/math] can be approximated by

[math]\rho g \zeta(x,t) \approx \large\frac{1}{4}\normalsize \Big( p(x+ct)-p(x-ct) \Big) - \Large\frac{ct}{2}\frac{\partial}{\partial x} \normalsize p(x-ct) \, . \qquad (5)[/math]

When the atmospheric disturbance travels at approximately the long-wave celerity, the forced wave remains nearly in phase with the atmospheric forcing. As a result, the amplitude of the resonantly generated wave can increase approximately linearly with the duration of forcing. In this case we have Proudman resonance. The first term between brackets in the r.h.s. of Eq. (5) becomes constant if we assume that the pressure perturbation is an atmospheric front corresponding to a pressure jump over a small distance [math]l[/math]. For example, consider an atmospheric pressure front represented by [math]p = p_0 - p_1 \tanh(x/l)[/math] where [math]2p_1[/math] is the pressure difference across the front and [math]l[/math] characterizes its width. At exact resonance, the growing component of the surface elevation is approximately given by [math]\Delta \zeta (x,t) \approx \Large\frac{p_1}{2\rho g l}\frac{ct}{\cosh^2((x-ct)/l)}\normalsize.[/math]

Typical values are [math]p_1 = 100 \, Pa, \; l = 5 \, 10^4 \, m, \; V \approx c = 25 \, ms^{-1} .[/math] For example, in the idealized case of exact resonance, five hours of forcing at 25 m/s corresponds to a propagation distance of 450 km and a maximum surface elevation of approximately 4.5 cm.

In realistic coastal seas, the amplification is modified by variable bathymetry, tidal currents, wind forcing, and energy dissipation. Nevertheless, substantial amplification consistent with the idealized Proudman resonance model can occur when the propagation speed of the atmospheric disturbance remains close to the effective long-wave celerity over a sufficiently long distance[17].


Related articles

Harbor resonance
Shoaling
Edge wave
Tsunami


References

  1. ↑ Vilibic, I. and Sepic, J. 2009. Destructive meteotsunamis along the eastern Adriatic coast: overview. Phys. Chem. Earth 34: 904–917
  2. ↑ Pattiaratchi, C. B. and Wijeratne, E. M. S. 2015. Are meteotsunamis an underrated hazard? Philos. T. R. Soc. A 373, 20140377
  3. ↑ Vilibic, I., Rabinovich, A.B. and Anderson, E.J. 2021. Special issue on the global perspective on meteotsunami science: editorial. Natural Hazards 106: 1087–1104
  4. ↑ Pattiaratchi, C. and Wijeratne, E.M.S. 2014. Observations of meteorological tsunamis along the south-west Australian coast. Nat. Hazards 74: 281–303
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Proudman, J. 1929. The effects on the sea of changes in atmospheric pressure. Geophys J Int 2: 197–209
  6. ↑ Churchill, D.D., Houston, S.H. and Bond, N.A. 1995. The daytona beach wave of 3–4 July 1992: a shallow-water gravity wave forced by a propagating squall line. Bull Am Meteor Soc 76:21–32
  7. ↑ Williams, D.A., Horsburgh, K.J., Schultz, D.M. and Hughes, C.W. 2019. Examination of generation mechanisms for an English channel meteotsunami: combining observations and modeling. J Phys Oceanogr 49:103–120
  8. ↑ Williams, D.A., Schultz, D.M., Horsburgh, K.J. and Hughes, C.W. 2021. An 8-yr meteotsunami climatology across Northwest Europe: 2010–17. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 51: 1145–1161
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Zemunik, P., Denamiel, C., Sepic, J. and Vilibic, I. 2022. High-frequency sea-level analysis: Global distributions. Global and Planetary Change 210, 103775
  10. ↑ Linares, A., Wu, C.H., Bechle, A.J., Anderson, E.J. and Kristovich, D.A.R. 2019. Unexpected rip currents induced by a meteotsunami. Nature Sci. Rep. 9: 2105
  11. ↑ Villalonga, J., Monserrat, S., Gomis, D. and Jordà, G. 2024. Observational characterization of atmospheric disturbances generating meteotsunamis in the Balearic Islands. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 129, e2024JC020910
  12. ↑ Heidarzadeh, M. and Rabinovich, A.B. 2021. Combined hazard of typhoon-generated meteorological tsunamis and storm surges along the coast of Japan. Nat. Hazards 106: 1639–1672
  13. ↑ De Jong, M.P.C. 2004. Origin and prediction of seiches in Rotterdam harbour basins. PhD thesis Delft University.
  14. ↑ Wijeratne, E. M. S. and Pattiaratchi, C. B. 2024. Meteotsunamis generated by thunderstorms. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 129, e2023JC020662
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Monserrat, S., Vilibic, I. and Rabinovich, A.B. 2006. Meteotsunamis: atmospherically induced destructive ocean waves in the tsunami frequency band. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 6: 1035–1051
  16. ↑ Rabinovich, A.B. 2009. Seiches and harbor oscillations. In: Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering (Ed. Y.C. Kim). World Scientific Publ., Singapore
  17. ↑ Williams, D.A., Horsburgh, K.J., Schultz, D.M. and Hughes, C.W. 2021. Proudman resonance with tides, bathymetry and variable atmospheric forcings. Nat. Hazards 106: 1169–1194


The main author of this article is Job Dronkers
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Citation: Job Dronkers (2026): Proudman resonance and meteo tsunamis. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Proudman_resonance_and_meteo_tsunamis [accessed on 6-11-2026]
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