Endocrine disruption by marine pollutants

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Biomonitoring of marine pollution

Biomonitoring uses organisms and their biological responses to detect pollutant exposure and harmful biological effects, including effects of substances or mixtures that may escape chemical monitoring.

The Coastal Wiki articles on this subject provide complementary perspectives:


Effects of diverse toxic substances on different marine animals are described in articles in the category ecotoxicology.


Introduction

Some environmental pollutants interfere with hormonal regulation in marine organisms and can thereby affect development, growth, metabolism, reproduction and other physiological functions. Such substances are termed endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) when alteration of endocrine function leads to adverse effects in an organism, its offspring or a population.

Endocrine disruption can involve several hormonal pathways. The best studied are the estrogen, androgen, thyroid and steroidogenesis (EATS) pathways, although other endocrine mechanisms are increasingly recognized. Endocrine effects are of particular concern because changes initiated at the molecular or hormonal level can ultimately impair reproduction, development or population performance. Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) provide a broader framework for linking such molecular disturbances through intermediate biological responses to adverse effects on organisms or populations. Many existing endocrine AOPs concern EATS pathways in vertebrates, whereas endocrine pathways and corresponding AOPs are still poorly developed for many marine invertebrates.[1][2]

Mechanisms of endocrine disruption

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with hormonal regulation in several ways:

  • mimic or antagonize the action of endogenous hormones by activating or blocking their receptors;
  • alter the synthesis, metabolism or excretion of natural hormones;
  • interfere with hormone transport and availability, for example by affecting transport proteins;
  • alter hormone receptor abundance or endocrine feedback regulation.

The resulting effect depends on the chemical, the endocrine pathway involved and the timing of exposure; developmental stages are often particularly sensitive.[2]

Effects on wildlife

Endocrine disruption has been demonstrated in a wide range of marine organisms, including invertebrates, fish and marine mammals.[3][1] Reported effects include altered sexual development, reproductive impairment, changes in gonad development and hormone concentrations, disturbed growth and development, and changes in behavior or metabolism. The ecological significance depends on whether these responses affect survival or reproduction sufficiently to influence population performance.

Endocrine mechanisms are best characterized in vertebrates. In marine invertebrates, hormonal signaling pathways differ substantially among taxa and are often incompletely known. Biomarker responses therefore need to be interpreted with particular caution before attributing them to a specific endocrine mechanism.[1]

Endocrine disrupting compounds

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals include both naturally occurring substances and a wide range of synthetic compounds. Important groups found in the marine environment include: [4]

  • natural and synthetic estrogens, including endogenous hormones and synthetic hormones used in pharmaceuticals;
  • alkylphenols, originating for example from industrial surfactants and other chemical products;
  • bisphenols, widely used in plastics and resins;
  • phthalates, used mainly as plasticizers and in numerous consumer and industrial products;
  • organochlorine pesticides, including compounds such as DDT and related persistent pesticides;
  • PCBs and related halogenated compounds, some of which or their metabolites can interfere with endocrine signalling;
  • organotins, especially tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT), which can cause severe reproductive abnormalities in marine gastropods; see TBT and Imposex;
  • selected pharmaceuticals, including synthetic hormones and other biologically active substances that enter coastal waters mainly through wastewater discharges.

In addition to these established groups, endocrine effects have been reported for selected PFAS, including PFOS and PFOA, involving thyroid and reproductive hormone pathways.[5]

Detection of endocrine-disrupting activity

Chemical analysis is used to identify and quantify known or suspected endocrine-active substances in water, sediment and organisms. Target compounds are commonly isolated by extraction and analyzed by gas or liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.[6]

Chemical analysis alone does not reveal the combined endocrine activity of complex mixtures. Effect-based bioassays therefore play an important complementary role.[7] These assays measure biological responses such as receptor activation, cell proliferation, reporter-gene induction or vitellogenin induction and can detect endocrine activity even when the responsible substances have not all been identified.

When an environmental sample shows unexplained endocrine activity, effect-directed analysis can be used to separate the sample into fractions and identify the compounds associated with the observed effect.

Occurrence in coastal waters

Endocrine-active substances enter coastal waters mainly through wastewater discharges and rivers, but also through industrial emissions, urban runoff and maritime activities. Depending on their chemical properties, these substances occur in the dissolved phase, adsorb to suspended matter and sediments, or accumulate in marine organisms. Concentrations are generally highest in waters strongly influenced by urban and industrial discharges, whereas information from the open ocean is much more limited.

Estrogens provide a well-studied example. Estrogens are steroid hormones that regulate reproduction and many other physiological processes. Natural estrogens such as estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3) are excreted by humans and animals, whereas synthetic estrogens such as 17α- ethinylestradiol (EE2) are used mainly in pharmaceutical products. Because these compounds are biologically active at very low concentrations, their release into aquatic environments can cause endocrine effects in exposed organisms.

A global compilation of measurements of E1, E2, E3 and EE2 showed that estrogen contamination is widespread in freshwater and marine systems. Waniek et al. (2025[8]) found a high cumulative ecological risk quotient at 65% of approximately 400 investigated sites. Measurements from the open ocean remain very scarce, but the detection of estrogens even in open-sea environments indicates that these compounds can persist during transport over considerable distances.

A multitude of studies has demonstrated the occurrence of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in European coastal waters, sediments and biota. EDCs have been reported from the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea and North Sea, including estuaries and coastal lagoons influenced by urban and industrial discharges.[9][10][11][12] Persistent compounds have also been detected in sediments and marine organisms, including molluscs, crustaceans and fish.[13][14][15][16]

Other endocrine-active contaminants are also widespread in coastal environments. Alkylphenols, bisphenols and phthalates are frequently detected in seawater, sediments and biota.[17] Some PFAS can accumulate and biomagnify through marine food webs.[18] Pharmaceuticals are widespread in estuaries and coastal waters, particularly in waters receiving wastewater discharges.[19]

Regulatory framework

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are regulated through a combination of chemical legislation and environmental quality legislation. The European Union has developed one of the most comprehensive regulatory frameworks. Under REACH and related chemical legislation, substances can be identified as endocrine disruptors and, where warranted, be subject to authorization requirements, restrictions on use or other risk-management measures. In aquatic and marine environments, the Water Framework Directive and European Marine Strategy Framework Directive provide complementary requirements for monitoring and reducing chemical pollution and assessing its biological effects.

No comparable single regulatory framework exists at global level. International conventions regulate particular groups or uses of hazardous chemicals. The Stockholm Convention restricts or eliminates persistent organic pollutants, including several compounds with endocrine-disrupting properties such as PCBs, DDT and PFOS. For the marine environment, the International Maritime Organization's Anti-Fouling Systems Convention prohibits harmful organotin compounds such as tributyltin (TBT) in ship antifouling systems.

National approaches differ. The United States Environmental Protection Agency operates an Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program for identifying chemicals that interact with endocrine pathways, while Japan has developed the EXTEND program for assessment of endocrine-disrupting effects. Other countries generally address endocrine disruption within broader chemical-risk assessment and pollution-control legislation.

The OECD supports these regulatory systems by developing internationally harmonized test guidelines and assessment methods for identifying endocrine-disrupting properties. It also coordinates the development and scientific review of Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs), which link an initial interaction with the endocrine system to subsequent biological changes and ultimately to an adverse effect. AOPs can therefore help organize mechanistic evidence for chemical risk assessment and regulatory decision-making.[2]


Related articles

Biomonitoring of pollution impacts in the marine environment
Biomarkers for assessing marine pollution effects
Health biomarkers in marine mammals
Coastal pollution and impacts
Biomarker
Bioindicator
Endocrine disrupting compounds
Endocrine system


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Pinto, P.I.S., Miglioli, A., LaLone, C.A., Baumann, L., Baynes, A., Blanc-Legendre, M., Cancio, I., Cousin, X., Dang, Z., Dumollard, R., Ford, A.T., Green, C., Iguchi, T., Kearney, P., Knigge, T., Minier, C., Monsinjon, T., Monteiro, M.S., Sturve, J., Watanabe, H., Yamamoto, H., Ankley, G., Power, D.M. and Katsiadaki, I. 2026. Prioritising research on endocrine disruption in the marine environment: a global perspective. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 101(2): 848-868
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 OECD, 2025. Report on the State of the Science to Address Endocrine Disrupters Under the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling, OECD Series on Testing and Assessment, No. 427, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9aa7cd81-en.
  3. ↑ Porte, C., Janer, G., Lorusso, L.C., Ortiz-Zarragoitia, M., Cajaraville, M.P., Fossi, M.C. and Canesi, L. 2006. Endocrine disruptors in marine organisms: approaches and perspectives. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 143: 303–315
  4. ↑ Metzler M. and Pfeiffer E. 2001. Chemistry of Natural and Anthopogenic Endocrine Active Compounds. In The handbook of environmental Chemistry 3-L, Endocrine Disruptors Part I. Metzler, M. (Ed.), Springer: 63-80
  5. ↑ Sunderland, E.M., Hu, X.C., Dassuncao, C., Tokranov, A.K., Wagner, C.C. and Allen, J.G. 2025. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances as persistent pollutants with metabolic and endocrine-disrupting impacts. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 36(3): 249–261.
  6. ↑ Gomes L.R., Scrimshaw D.M. and Lester N.J. 2003. Determination of endocrine disrupters in sewage treatment and receiving waters. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 22: 697-706
  7. ↑ Campbell C.G., Borglin S.E., Green F.B., Grayson A., Wozei E. and Stringfellow W.T. 2006. Biologically directed environmental monitoring, fate, and transport of estrogenic disrupting compounds in water: A review. Chemosphere 65: 1265-1280
  8. ↑ Waniek, J.J., Osterholz, H. and Frazão, H.C. 2025. A global inventory of natural and synthetic estrogens in aquatic systems. Annual Review of Marine Science 17: 511–536
  9. ↑ Pojana G., Bonfa A., Busetti F. Collarin A. and Marcomini A. 2004. Estrogenic potential of the Venice, Italy, lagoon waters. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23: 1874-1880
  10. ↑ Beck I-C., Bruhn R., Gandrass J. and Ruck W. 2005. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of estrogenic compounds in coastal surface water of the Baltic Sea. Journal of Chromatography A 1090: 98-106
  11. ↑ Jonkers N., Laane R.W.P.M. and de Voogt P. 2005. Sources and fate of nonylphenol ethoxylates and their metabolites in the Dutch coastal zone of the North Sea. Marine Chemistry 96: 115-135
  12. ↑ Noppe H., Verslycke T., De Wulf E., Verheyden K., Monteyne E., Van Caeter P., Janssen C.R. and De brabander H.F. 2007. Occurrence of estrogens in the Scheldt estuary: A 2-year survey. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 66: 1-8
  13. ↑ Micheletti C., Critto A. and Marcomini A. 2007. Assessment of ecological risk from bioaccumulation of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in a coastal lagoon. Environment International 33: 45-55
  14. ↑ Günther K., Dürbeck H.-W., Kleist E., Thiele B., Prast H. and Schwuger M. 2001. Endocrine-disrupting nonylphenols – ultra-trace analysis and time-dependent trend in mussels from the German bight. Fresenious Journal of Analytical Chemistry 371: 782-786
  15. ↑ Ferrara F., Fabietti F., Delise M. and Funari E. 2005. Alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates contamination of crustaceans and fishes from the Adriatic Sea (Italy). Chemosphere 59: 1145-1150
  16. ↑ Porte C., Janer G., Lorusso L.C., Ortiz-Zarragoitia M., Cajaraville M.P., Fossi M.C. and Canesi L. 2006. Endocrine disruptors in marine organisms: Approaches and perspectives. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C, 143: 303-315
  17. ↑ Megill, C., Shaw, K., Knauer, K., Seeley, M.E. and Lynch, J. 2024. Plastic additives in the ocean: Use of a comprehensive database for meta-analysis and method development. Chemosphere 358, 142172
  18. ↑ Cheng, H. et al. 2022. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in marine organisms. Science of the Total Environment 851, 158117
  19. ↑ Adedipe, D.T., Chen, C., Lai, R.W.S., Xu, S., Luo, Q., Zhou, G.-J., Boxall, A., Brooks, B.W., Doblin, M.A., Wang, X., Wang, J. and Leung, K.M.Y. 2024. Occurrence and potential risks of pharmaceutical contamination in global estuaries: A critical review and analysis. Environment International 192: 109031.


The main author of this article is Dimitra Voutsa
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Citation: Dimitra Voutsa (2026): Endocrine disruption by marine pollutants. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruption_by_marine_pollutants [accessed on 2-09-2026]
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